Actor browse - AIM25

Ladies National Association for the Abolition of the State Regulation of Vice and for the Promotion of Social Purity

Ladies National Association for the Abolition of the State Regulation of Vice and for the Promotion of Social Purity (1869-1915) (LNA) was established in 1869. In the 1840s there was an upsurge in concern about prostitution in the United Kingdom. Evangelical Christians, socialists and chartists all condemned the industry and moral campaigns were established to suppress vice. However, only after 1857' Royal Commission report on the health of the army, and a follow-up report on the level of venereal disease in the military five years later did official tolerance of prostitution came to an end as the question became fused with contemporary concerns over public health. The result was three successive decrees in 1864, 1866 and 1869 known as the Contagious Diseases (referred to as the CD) Acts. By these, in certain towns containing military bases, any woman suspected of being a prostitute could be stopped and forced to undergo a genital inspection to discover if she had a venereal disease. If she did not submit willingly, she could be arrested and brought before a magistrate. If she was found to be infected, she could be effectively imprisoned in a 'lock' hospital. After the 1869 Social Sciences congress at which the CD Acts were raised and condemned, a number of individuals established the National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Act. No women were originally included in the organisation though many later joined. The result of this omission was that by the end of Dec 1869, the Ladies National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts was formed. On New Year' Day 1870, one of their first actions was to publish in the Daily News a protest against the Acts. This was signed by 124 women including Florence Nightingale, Josephine Butler, Mary Carpenter, Lydia Becker and drafted by Harriet Martineau and became known as the Ladies' Protest. This manifesto document opposed the acts on several grounds: they gave unbounded powers over women to the police; they identified and penalised the wrong sex as the source of vice; they withdrew moral restraints on conduct without tackling the moral causes of disease; they posed a serious danger to civil liberties; and finally, the group claimed, they were incapable of diminishing disease. The group' treasurer was Mrs Jacob Bright and Butler acted as the honorary secretary. By Oct 1871, they had gathered 1400 members and by 1871 57 branches had been formed. At the end of that year the Executive Committee comprised: Mrs Jacob Bright, Lydia Becker, Mrs Blackburn, Miss Estlin, Mrs McLaren, Mrs E. Backhouse, Miss Merryweather, Mrs Nichol, Miss L Marche-Phillipps, Mrs Reid and Miss Wigham; Mrs Arthur Tanner had become its head and Josephine Butler remained secretary. Its main bases of support were in the North and Bristol: until 1873, the organisation had no London offices and support in this area remained weak until the 1880s. However, throughout its existence, it maintained ties with the National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Act though maintaining its independence as a female organisation focused on moral rather than statistical arguments. Therefore, when the CD Acts were repealed in 1886, the organisation did not end as NARCDA did, but went on to fight for equal moral standards between the sexes as the Ladies National Association for the Abolition of the State Regulation of Vice and for the Promotion of Social Purity. In this incarnation, the body campaigned for the repeal of the Acts remaining in force in India. In 1915, they amalgamated with the British Branch of the British, Continental and General Federation for the Abolition of Government Regulation of Prostitution to become the Association for Moral and Social Hygiene.

National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts

The National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts (1869-1886) was established in 1869. In the 1840s there was an upsurge in concern with prostitution in the United Kingdom. Evangelical Christians, socialists and chartists all condemned the industry and moral campaigns were established to suppress vice. However, only after 1857's Royal Commission report on the health of the army and a follow-up report on the level of venereal disease in the military five years later did official tolerance of prostitution came to an end as the question became fused with contemporary concerns over public health. The result was three successive decrees in 1864, 1866 and 1869 known as the Contagious Diseases (referred to as the CD) Acts. By these, in certain towns containing military bases, any woman suspected of being a prostitute could be stopped and forced to undergo a genital inspection to discover if she had a venereal disease. If she did not submit willingly, she could be arrested and brought before a magistrate. If she was found to be infected, she could be effectively imprisoned in a 'lock' hospital. After the 1869 Social Sciences congress where the CD Acts were raised and condemned, a number of individuals established the National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Act, originally under the title of the National Anti-Contagious Diseases Act Extension Association. An Executive Committee was elected which included Mr Robert Charlton as Treasurer and Frederick Banks as secretary with the Rev. Dr. Hoopell and Dr Worth as honorary secretaries. No women were originally included in the organisation, and though many later joined, this initial omission led to the formation of the Ladies National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Act under Josephine Butler. Local branches were rapidly set up, particularly in the north of England and the Midlands. The following year, the NARCDA set up the journal 'The Shield' to promote their work. In the summer of 1870, the organisation merged with the Metropolitan Anti-Contagious Diseases Acts Association after a joint conference to form a London-based group better placed to influence parliamentary opinion. The new body continued under the name of the National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Act and by 1886 had around five hundred branches. In 1887 the decision was taken to dissolve the group, a year after the 1886 repeal of the acts, though it was not finally wound up until 1890.

British Vigilance Association

The British Vigilance Association (1953-1971) was founded in 1953. During the late nineteenth century, the widespread campaign against the Contagious Diseases Acts had had the effect of focussing attention on the issue of prostitution. This resulted in the encouragement of groups like the National Vigilance Association whose aim until 1952 was to work against the trade and its causes. In 1898, following the precedent of the International Abolitionist Federation, the National Vigilance Association agreed to address concerns about the international aspect of prostitution and began laying the foundations of an international federation of bodies working towards the abolition of the trade. In 1900 this became known as the International Bureau for Suppression of Traffic in Persons.

Throughout its existence the National Vigilance Association provided the premises, secretariat and the major part of the funding for this officially separate international organisation and its executive committee initially formed the British National Committee of the larger group into the twentieth century. However, a financial crisis occurred within both the British National Committee (BNC) and the National Vigilance Association (NVA) in the early 1950s, closing down the latter's work administering the work of the Travellers' Aid Society that had been undertaken from 1939 to 1951.

The creation of the British Vigilance Association in 1953 was the result of the amalgamation of the BNC and NVA in 1952 after a period of work done by a joint committee of the two organisations. The new group retained the same areas of interest as the NVA, combining it with the BNC's relationship to the International Bureau. It also had the practical role of administering the day to day work of the International Traveller's Aid group of the international organisation until 1962, when the Young Women's Christian Association took over. The objects of the new group were to promote the principles of the International Bureau; to secure the recognition of a high and equal moral standards for men and women; to work for the suppression of criminal vice and against the exploitation of prostitution and public immorality; to promote appropriate legislative action and reform; and support activities in accordance with these objectives carried out by its constituent bodies. The structure of the Association was formed by: the Council which met four times a year and included the officers of the group and two representatives of each of the constituent societies; the Executive Committee, which met around ten times and was made of ten members elected by the Council; and the Finance Committee which consisted of seven members elected by the executive committee and met four times a year. Additionally, a sub-committee was established dedicated to the welfare of Irish Girls in England from 1953 to 1955, which was renamed the Irish Girls and Related Problems sub-committee between 1955 and 1957. Lady Nunburnholme was president until 1962 when Joan Vickers, MP and Chair of the UK Committee on the Status of Women, succeeded her.

Affiliated to the group were the Association for Moral and Social Hygiene, the British Social Biology Council, the Catholic Women's League, the Church of England Moral Welfare Council, the Mission to Seamen, the Mother's Union, the National Council of Women, the Public Morality Council and the St Joan's Alliance. Additionally, there were local branches such as the Liverpool, Hull and Scotland Vigilance Associations. The areas in which it worked revolved around the licensing of employment agencies and the overseeing of the au-pair network in order to prevent the abuses which, it was feared, they might hide. However, it was also active in protests regarding the Street Offences Act of 1959 that prosecuted female prostitutes for soliciting but not their clients. Furthermore, it also supported the Association for Moral & Social Hygiene in presenting evidence to the Wolfenden Committee on prostitution and in responding to the resultant report. The group continued its activities in these areas until the retirement of the General Secretary Richard F Russell in 1971, at which point the British Vigilance Association was wound up.

International Bureau for the Suppression of Traffic in Persons

The International Bureau for the Suppression of Traffic in Persons (1899-1971) was established at a time when the widespread campaign against the Contagious Diseases Acts had had the effect of focussing attention on the issue of prostitution. This had the result of encouraging the growth of groups like the National Vigilance Association whose aim was to work against the trade and its causes. In 1898, following the precedent of the International Abolitionist Federation, the National Vigilance Association agreed to address concerns about the international aspect of prostitution and began laying the foundations of an international federation of bodies working towards the abolition of the trade which would be known as the International Bureau for Suppression of Traffic in Persons. An international congress was held in London in Jun 1899 attended by ten delegations from European countries and one from the United States of America, as well as representatives of forty-eight local and national societies for the UK. The first meeting of the International Bureau was held in 1900, and throughout its existence the National Vigilance Association provided the premises, secretariat and the major part of the funding for international work, although the International Bureau for the Suppression of Traffic in Persons was always a separate organisation. Its constitution guaranteed that there should be a national committee in each of the partner countries. Each of these would send two representatives to sit on the international committee. The assembled representatives would, along with three other members elected by the National Vigilance Association, form the Bureau of the Congress or the central governing body. The NVA evidently saw the Bureau as the machinery for its international work, which would later lead to some tension with the partners. International work ceased during World War I after 1915 when it was decided that each national committee should continue working in its own way. The first official post-war meeting was held in 1920, but it was not until 1923 that national committees of former enemy countries felt able to re-establish international links. The first post-war Congress was held in Graz, Austria in 1924. The International Bureau for the Suppression of Traffic in Persons became closely involved with the agencies of the newly formed League of Nations which had responsibility for the work towards the suppression of traffic in persons. On the outbreak of World War II in 1939, work was again halted, only fully to resume in 1949 when constituent national committees became particularly active in the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Switzerland, Austria, Denmark, Indonesia and the United States of America. Unfortunately, this resumption coincided with a financial crisis within the National Vigilance Association, which was obliged to close down its Travellers' aid work in 1951 and re-assess its role.

After the revision of that organisation's Constitution in 1952-1953 and reappearance as the British Vigilance Association, the International Bureau's work changed. It concentrated on encouraging nation states to ratify the United Nations convention for the suppression of the traffic in persons and of the exploitation of the prostitution of others (2 Dec 1949).

The International Bureau also reported on international travellers' aid work in association with the International Catholic Association of Young Women's Services (ACISJF) and the World Young Women's Christian Association /Amies de la Jeune Fille. In addition, there was particular emphasis on the status of young women working as au pairs. Constituent national committees were particularly active in the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Switzerland, Austria, Denmark, Indonesia and the United States of America.

During the latter years of the IBS the organisation was struggling to survive under severe financial restraints and a main preoccupation was retaining its status as a non-governmental organisation with consultative status at the United Nations. The aims of the IBS seemed no longer in tune with the times, and the organisation did not long survive Richard Russell's retirement from ill-health in 1971.

National Vigilance Association British Vigilance Association and National Committee for the Suppression of Traffic in Persons Travellers' Aid Society International Bureau for the Suppression of Traffic in Women and Children

The National Vigilance Association (1885-1953) was founded at a time when the debate over the Contagious Diseases Acts and the regulation of prostitution had drawn public attention to the more general issue of the traffic of women and children. Investigations into child prostitution by WT Stead published in the Pall Mall Gazette increased pressure to pass a Criminal Law Amendment Bill. In order to achieve this immediate aim and support any future changes to the law deemed necessary, the National Vigilance Association was formed in Aug 1885 'for the enforcement and improvement of the laws for the repression of criminal vice and public immorality'. All local Vigilance Committees, and any other organisations with congruent aims, were to affiliate to this new body while in turn the central body was to stimulate the formation of new vigilance committees. The General Council consisted of delegates from the affiliated groups and other appointed members and early members included Mrs Fawcett, Mrs Percy Bunting, J Stansfeld MP, Mr WT Stead, Miss Ellice Hopkins, Mrs Mitchell, Mrs Lynch, Miss Bewicke, Mrs Bradley and Mrs Josephine Butler. At the initial meeting, an Executive Committee was appointed to manage the organisation's business and subcommittees were set up to deal with preventive, legal, organisational, parliamentary and municipal matters, as well as with registries, enquiries, the suppression of foreign traffic, finance and literature. The group grew rapidly at a local level and soon there were five branches of the association organised at a regional level: South Wales and Monmouthshire, Sunderland and North Eastern, Manchester and Northern Counties, Birmingham and Midland Counties and Bristol and South Western Counties. The new Association soon amalgamated with a number of other organisations working in the same field. The Minors' Protection Society merged with them in 1885, as did the Society for the Suppression of Vice, with the National Vigilance Association taking over responsibility for the work of the Belgian Traffic Committee. Discussions on a merger took place with the Central Vigilance Society from 1887 to 1891. The Association's activities also widened during this period. In 1899 the National Vigilance Association founded an international organisation, the International Bureau for the Suppression of Traffic in Persons. The Executive of the National Vigilance Association acted as the national committee for Britain within the framework of the International Bureau and in this context was known as the British National Committee though the personnel were identical at the time. Later, however, the British National Committee took on an extended role and became a separate, more broadly-based organisation in its own right which comprised representatives of all the major and some minor organisations for the protection of women and children. Subsequently, in 1917 the aims of the National Vigilance Association itself broadened once more to embrace the protection of women, minors (including young men) and children. To achieve this, they worked not only for the suppression of prostitution but also of 'obscene' publications and public behaviour. A Special Council was established concerned with 'the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic'. However, in the 1920s and 1930s the National Vigilance Association was constantly plagued with financial difficulties despite its merger with the Travellers' Aid Society in 1939. Rising costs and a diminishing income brought a financial crisis in 1951. In 1952 National Vigilance Association and British National Committee amalgamated once more, ending both their independent existences. Consequently, a new group emerged in 1953 which was named as the British Vigilance Association.

Russell , Richard F , fl 1951-1972 , social reformer

Traveller's Aid Society

Anglican Group for the Ordination of Women to the Historic Ministry of the Church

The Anglican Group for the Ordination of Women (1930-1978) began after a call for evidence on women and the ministry went out as in the run up to the Lambeth Conference of Anglican Bishops in 1930. Its immediate stated aim was: 1) to give effect to the injunction of the Archbishop of Canterbury that the church should be provided with material "which would compel the serious consideration of [the ordination of women] in a manner worthy of its importance" and 2) to provide opportunities of contact for women who believe themselves called to the ministry. However, the working group's evidence was rejected by the Conference. Consequently, the ad hoc group was re-established as an ongoing organisation from 1931. Their subsequent aims, as outlined in 1935, were: 1) To uphold the Christian principle of spiritual equality between men and women; 2) to draw attention to the growing need for the admission of women to the [...] ministry of the Church and 3) to bring together and support those women who believe themselves to be called to holy orders. At this point, as throughout its existence, the group was solely concerned with the ordination of women in the Church of England, although later they would work with other non-denominational groups such as the Society for the Ministry of Women in the Church. Membership of the organisation was open to all baptised Anglicans over the age of 18 and it was financed by donation rather than by subscription. Business and policy making was in the hands of the Annual General Meeting, where the annual report was received and officers and the Executive Committee elected (the first annual meeting was held Mar 1933). The group held intermittent public meetings throughout the 1930s and went into complete abeyance during the Second World War. The first post-war AGM was held in 1946 but the organisation's impetus had dissipated and only three general meetings were held between 1949 and 1957. During the early part of the Fifties, the organisation abstained from any activity that might create a debate on the issue of the ordination of women in the Church of England, confining their work to research and education. However, the outcome of this, in 1955, was the submission of a report that recommended that women should be allowed to conduct statutory services (though not communion). The church once more rejected this in May 1956 and this rejection led to a resurgence of activity, as the group began to publicise its existence through letters to the Times newspaper. The following year the constitution was changed once again. This time its objectives were 1) to secure ordination of women to all orders of the Church of England; 2) promote equality between men and women in the offices and the affairs of the Anglican Church; 3) assist women in theological study and 4) to undertake all lawful activities to promote the previous points. Throughout the 1960s their efforts were concentrated on raising awareness of the issue in the media through contacts with the press and publications of titles such as Women's Work in the Church of England. However, the organisation was finally would up in the mid-1970s.

Women for Westminster , Bournemouth Branch

Campaign Against Pornography

The Campaign Against Pornography (CAP) (1987-1997) was established in 1987 as a response to Dr Clare Short MP's bill to ban erotica such as 'Page 3' in national newspapers. Its aims were 1) to promote equal opportunities for women and oppose discrimination, 2) to preserve and protect the health and safety of women and children through working towards the elimination of violent crimes against them, 3) to undertake research into the links between pornography and violence against women and children and their position in society and to publish the results of such research, 4) to gather information related to the production, publication, distribution and consumption of pornography and its effects on women and children's lives and their position in society, 5) to provide facilities for the relief of women and children affected by pornography, 6) to raise funds and receive contributions, 7) to co-operate and collaborate with any voluntary organisation and statutory authorities having similar objects and to exchange information and advice with such bodies. The group was incorporated in Apr 1989 and undertook a series of educational programmes that included training events, school workshops and seminars. It also set up a helpline and assisted with a research project with the University of Bradford's Violence Abuse and Gender Relations research unit on pornography. A number of unions and local union branches affiliated to CAP, include NUS, UNISON, CPSA and GMB. CAP focused on a number of specialised campaigns in addition to its general aims. Two main campaigns were 'Off the Shelf' (1989-c 1995), which protested the sale of 'soft porn' in retail stores, and Red Hot Dutch (c 1993) which helped prevent the launch of a hardcore porn satellite channel in 1993. Other campaign activities included petitions and picketing protests. One notable local event was the Jack the Ripper Exhibition at London Dungeon. CAP also undertook a letter writing campaign in 1995, by which time it had a number of local groups affiliated to it throughout the country. However, it ended its activities in the late 1990s through the effects of a financial crisis.

Central Berkshire Equal Opportunities Group

Committee for Promoting the Higher Education of Women

See the corporate history for Committee for Promoting the Higher Education of Women, 1869-1871

The creation of the Committee for Promoting the Higher Education of Women (1869-1871) was part of a wider debate about gender and education. Until the end of the nineteenth century, most middle-class girls were educated at home by the family, unlike their brothers who routinely attended university, and the schools which did cater for them were generally of a very poor academic standard, with emphasis on 'accomplishments' such as embroidery and music. However, some such as Louisa Martindale, tried to start her own schools for girls with more academically demanding curricula. Despite the failure of Martindale's exercise, Mary Francis Buss followed in her footsteps, however, when, at the age of twenty-three she founded the North London Collegiate School for Ladies with similar aims while in 1858 Dorothea Beale became Principal of Cheltenham Ladies College and transformed it into one of the most academically successful schools in the country. In 1865 Beale began collaborating with Emily Davis, Barbara Bodichon, Helen Taylor, Francis Buss and Elizabeth Garrett Anderson in forming a debating society which became known as the Kensington Society. There, these women who would be crucial in the development of these schools met for the first time to discuss this and other topics. At the same time, they also began researching the question of the entrance of women into higher education. The Queen's College in London had already opened in 1847 to provide a superior level of education to governesses and had proved a success without being an accredited institution of higher education itself. In this context and influenced by the London group, a large number of Ladies' Educational Associations sprang up throughout the 1860s and 1870s. Those in Leeds, Liverpool, Newcastle, Sheffield, etc were brought together in 1867 by Anne Clough as the North of England Council for Promoting the Higher Education of Women and its members included Josephine and George Butler as well as Elizabeth Wolstenholme-Elmy. This council began setting up a series of lectures and a university-based examination for women who wished to become teachers and which would later develop into a university Extension Scheme, despite most universities' continued general refusal to open their degree examinations to women. In the South, other small groups were formed to work for the entrance of women into tertiary education. One of these was the Committee for Promoting the Higher Education of Women, which met from 1869. Its committee included Lady Monteagle, Mrs Blunt, Mrs Brookfield, Mrs Stair-Douglas, Misses Foude, Crawford and Legge and the Rev Blunt. Amongst its activities it carried our social lobbying and, more practically, organised a series of lectures on subjects such as science and the classics. It may have been the establishment in 1871 of the residence of Newnham College for women who were attending lectures at Cambridge by Henry Sidgewick that prompted the cessation of that particular group's activities in that year, though the overall movement for educational parity continued well into the twentieth century.

Council of Married Women

Consultative Committee of Women's Organisations

Equal Rights International

National Federation of Women's Institutes

The National Federation of Women's Institutes (1915-fl 2008), founded in 1915, grew out of a need for a body to support women in rural communities

THE ORGANISATION

As at 2007 The National Federation of Women's Institutes (NFWI) consisted of all the Women's Institutes (WIs) in England, Wales, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. The FUNCTION of NFWI was to put into effect the wishes of the members; the means by which this is done was laid down in the Constitution and Rules.

BACKGROUND TO NFWI

From 1915-1917 the Women's Institute (WI) committee of the Agricultural Organisations Society (AOS), a body funded by The Development Commission was responsible for forming the first WIs in Britain. The object of the AOS was to organise farmers into co-operative societies for the purchase of agricultural requirements and for the sale of produce but there were very few women involved in this work. John Nugent Harris, the secretary of AOS, heard about the Canadian WIs from Madge Watt who was visiting from Canada. Seeing the value of the WI movement, especially in war time, to get country women working co-operatively to increase food production, he persuaded AOS to employ Madge Watt to set up WIs. The first she started were in Wales soon followed by ones in England. AOS set up a subcommittee to oversee the WI work and appointed Lady Gertrude Denman as Chair on 3 Oct 1916. In Sep 1917 the Treasury refused the AOS a further grant for WI work, realising the movement was growing they felt it more appropriate that the funding for forming new WIs should be given to the Women's Branch of the Food Production Department of the Board of Agriculture (which also organised the Women's Land Army). Lady Denman did not wish the WIs to be taken over by a government department and negotiated an arrangement whereby the Board of Agriculture would fund the forming of WIs but the WIs, once formed, would be self-governing. Ongoing support and policymaking would be done by a separate organisation - a National Federation of Women's Institutes. On 16 Oct 1917 delegates from the 137 existing WIs were invited to a meeting at which they agreed to the setting up of the NFWI, its Constitution and Rules. They also elected a CENTRAL COMMITTEE OF MANAGEMENT. This was subsequently renamed the NATIONAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. At the first meeting of the Central Committee of Management Lady Denman was elected Chair. As well as the elected members the committee included appointed representatives from various government departments that provided financial support or had similar interests to the newly formed NFWI

In 1917-1918 these representatives were: Miss Talbot OBE - Board of Agriculture; The Hon Mrs Hanford - National Union of Women Workers; Mr J Nugent Harris, Mr GF Hooper and Mrs Roland Wilkins - AOS

1918-1919 representatives: Miss Talbot CBE - Board of Agriculture; The Hon Mrs A Lyttelton DBE - Board of Agriculture; Mr S Bostock, Mr GF Hooper, - AOS; Lady Cowan - National Council of Women Workers.

1919-1921 representatives: Miss Talbot CBE - Ministry of Agriculture; The Hon Mrs A Lyttelton DBE - Ministry of Agriculture; Mr S Bostock- AOS

1921-1922: Dame Meriel Talbot - Ministry of Agriculture; The Hon Mrs A Lyttelton DBE - Ministry of Agriculture; Mr ATA Dobson - Ministry of Agriculture; Miss Purves - National Association of Landswomen; Mr S Bostock- AOS.

The National Executive Committee continued to have representative members until incorporation in 1990. For example in 1988-1989 the representative members were: Mr CJ Hancock LLB BA ALA - Department of the Environment; Dr JM Graham - Principal Medical Officer, Department of Health and Social Security; Mr J Coe - Chief Information Officer, Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food; Dr D Hibbert - HMI, Department of Education.

PURPOSE OF THE NFWI

From 1915 - 1917 The WIs adopted rules based on the Canadian model and agreed that they would: "a) Study home economics; b) Provide a centre for educational and social intercourse and for all local activities; c) Encourage home and local industries; d) Develop co-operative enterprises; e) Stimulate interest in the agriculture industry"

From 1917-1919, under the Board of Agriculture, WIs concentrated on food production to help the war effort.

After the First World War ended, at the AGM in 1919, a revised form of the CONSTITUTION was agreed, which was further reviewed in 1928, 1948 and 1970. The following version was used in the 1950s and 1960s:

"CHARACTER: The Women's Institute movement is based on the spiritual ideals of fellowship, truth, tolerance and justice. All countrywomen are eligible for membership no matter what their views on religion or politics may be. The movement is non sectarian and non party-political.

OBJECTS: The main purpose of the Women's Institute movement is to improve and develop conditions of rural life. It seeks to give to all countrywomen the opportunity of working together through the Women's Institute organisation, and of putting into practice those ideals for which it stands. For the purpose of furthering the said objects, the Women's Institute shall have the power to: 1) Provide for the fuller education of countrywomen in citizenship, in public questions both national and international, in music , drama and other cultural subjects, also to secure instruction and training in all branches of agriculture, handicrafts, domestic science, health and social welfare; 2) Promote international understanding amongst countrywomen; 3) Provide a centre for social intercourse and activities; 4) Develop co-operative enterprise; 5) Receive and apply in and towards any of the above objects, and not otherwise, grants and other funds provided and sanctioned by the National Federation of Women's Institutes of England, Wales, Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man (hereinafter referred to as ' the National Federation'); 6) Buy on behalf of all or any members any commodity, approved by the committee, and distribute and allot the same either gratuitously or at cost; 7) Do such other things as may be incidental or conducive to the attainment of the purpose of the Institute"

Subsequently changes were made: 1) To clarify the meaning of 'non-party political - 'This shall not be so interpreted as to prevent WIs from concerning themselves with matters of political or religious significance, provided that the views of minorities are respected and provided that the movement is never used for party political or sectarian purposes' (1971); 2) To clarify the meaning of 'countrywomen' - 'Countrywomen shall mean women living in rural areas and women living elsewhere who are interested in the promotion of the arts crafts and sciences associated with rural life and the improvement and development of conditions of rural life'.

In 1990 NFWI became Incorporated - a charitable company limited by Guarantee

MEMORANDUM AND ARTICLES

'PREAMBLE: The Women's Institute movement is based on the ideals of fellowship, truth, tolerance and justice. All women who are interested in the arts, crafts, sciences and other issues associated with rural life (called countrywomen in this Memorandum of Association) may join no matter what their vies on religion or politics may be. The movement is non-sectarian and non-party political. This does not prevent WIs from concerning themselves with matters of political or religious significance, provided that the views of minorities are respected and provided that the movement is never used for party political or sectarian purposes. WIs are charitable and everything they do must be consistent with that special legal status. OBJECTS: The objects of the National Federation are to enable countrywomen to take an effective part in the improvement and development of the conditions of rural life, to advance their education in citizenship, in public questions both national and international, in music, drama and other cultural subjects, and secure instruction and training for them in all branches of agriculture, handicrafts, domestic science, health and social welfare. It exists to give all countrywomen the opportunity of working together through the Women's Institute organisation, and of putting into practice those ideals for which it stands. POWERS include: To form, assist and advise Federations; To form, assist and advise WIs; To promote international understanding; To organise conferences, course of instruction, exhibitions, lectures and other educational activities; * To publish books pamphlets reports leaflets journals films tapes and instructional matter'.

From 2000 the full Memorandum and Articles were available as a down-load from the NFWI website

From 1990 the WIs and Federations elected an Executive committee/ Board of Trustees every two years by postal ballot. In 1990 the number of Trustees was 17 plus the chair of the Wales committee ex officio and the power to co-opt up to 4 others

In 2002 a revised constitution reduced the number on the Board of Trustees to 14 including the chair of the Wales committee ex officio.

SUBCOMMITTEES

From 1917 the Central Committee of Management (subsequently the National Executive Committee and then The Board of Trustees) appointed Standing Sub-Committees to consider and make recommendations regarding areas of interest and special issues within the scope of their terms of reference. The sub-committees co-opted people with specialist knowledge to give expert advice. Their recommendations and reports were passed to the Executive Committee for decision. Ad Hoc committees, and working parties were set up from time to time to complete specific tasks.

The committee structure has changed over the years, the names of the committees have been changed but similar areas of work have been covered.

CONSULTATIVE COUNCIL

In 1919 The Consultative Council was established as a forum where the National Executive Committee and the elected Consultative Council Representatives from every Federation could meet, usually twice a year, to discuss national policy and comment on budgetary and other financial matters including (from 1976) amount and division of the annual subscriptions of members.

In 1981 this body was replaced by the National Council, made up of the National Executive Committee and the Chairs and Treasurers of the Federations. The Council received reports from the Executive Committee had the power to make recommendations to the Executive Committee by majority vote. Until 2006 it met twice a year and at the spring meeting considered resolutions submitted for the AGM and advised the Executive Committee on which ones should be placed on the final agenda.

NFWI REPRESENTATION ON OUTSIDE BODIES

From 1917 onwards NFWI has nominated members, or employees, to represent them on other bodies with similar or complimentary interests. These people were listed in the Annual Report. Also listed there were those people who served on outside bodies in a personal capacity but reported to the NFWI.

INTERNATIONAL LINKS

The Associated Country Women of the World (ACWW) was established in 1933, and NFWI affiliated to it and sent delegates to Area Conferences and to Triennial meetings.

FEDERATED STRUCTURE

When sufficient WIs were formed in a County the WIs joined together to form a County Federation. As at 2007 there were 70 county and Island Federations, each with a regional office, each level of the organisation was run by a committee of elected members. The NFWI Board of Trustees was democratically elected every two years by the members.

STAFF

The first paid staff members were employed by NFWI in 1918. NFWI employed staff for the London HQ and also various specialist organisers who travelled to advise the Federations and WIs on handicrafts, agriculture and horticulture, marketing, education and general organisation matters. From 1948 NFWI employed staff at Denman College

PUBLISHING (MAGAZINES)

1917-1919 - The Landswoman - (shared with The Women's Land Army)

1919-2006 - Home and Country - a subscription magazine, published monthly

2007 - WI Life - a membership magazine published eight times a year

PUBLICATIONS

1919 NFWI Publications Department, published leaflets and booklets providing advice to members to help them run the organisation, and also of an educational nature.

1977 - WI Books Ltd, published books and leaflets for internal use but also to sell on the open market and raise funds.

WI ENTERPRISES - incorporating the publishing activities and the production of the WI magazine as well as the trading arm of NFWI, was set up to raise funds and provide benefits for members.

WI MARKETS

1919 - First Women's Institute Market started in Lewes as an outlet for surplus produce. WI Markets spread to other areas to allow members and other share holders to market the products of their gardens, kitchens and craft skills.

In 1932 NFWI received a grant from the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust to expand the markets and they were formally registered as co-operatives under the Industrial Provident and Friendly Societies Act.

Neither NFWI nor the County Federations had legal control over markets but had responsibility to encourage their formation and development and to provide education in marketing for all WI members wishing to participate

By 1992 the combined annual turnover of the Markets reached £10m and in 1995 WI Markets separated from NFWI were renamed WI Country Markets and became self-financing. In 2004 WI Country Markets Ltd shareholders voted to discontinue the use of the WI initials, at the request of NFWI, and became Country Markets Ltd. (www.country-markets.co.uk)

FUNDING

1915-1917 the work of forming WIs was funded by AOS. Once formed the WIs became self funded

1917-1919 the work of forming WIs was funded by The Board of Agriculture, and grants were provided for the formation of County Federations, after which they became self funded.

1920-1927 NFWI received grants for core funding from Development Commission, the amount given gradually decreased until they stopped in 1927.

1927 onward income to run NFWI came from: share of annual membership subscriptions; grant-making bodies, educational trusts; commercial sponsors; WI Enterprises trading arm; investments; gifts, donations, and legacies.

KEY DATES IN WI HISTORY

1915 the Agricultural Organisations Society (AOS) employed Madge Watt to start WIs in Britain (Aug 1915 )

1915 Madge Watt started the first WI in Britain at Llanfair PG on Anglesey (11 Sep 1915), President : Mrs Stapleton Cotton

1915 AOS started a WI sub committee (Nov 1915)

1916 (summer) Lil Nugent Harris became secretary of the AOS WI committee

1916 (autumn) AOS invited Mrs Drage and Mrs Stapleton Cotton onto the WI sub committee and Lady Denman appointed Chairman

1917 The Treasury refused AOS a further grant for WI work (Sep 1917). Responsibility for forming WIs passed to the Women's Branch of the Food Production Department of the Board of Agriculture (who were also concerned with the Women's Land Army)

1917 first County Federation formed (Sussex on 5 Sep 1917)

1917 first Annual General Meeting of WI delegates held on 16 Oct 1917

1917 NFWI formed

1917 Lady Denman Elected Chair of Central Committee of Management

1918 NFWI exhibition and sale in Caxton Hall

1918 first training school for Voluntary County Organisers(VCOs) held Burgess Hill, Sussex (on 6 - 24 May 1918)

1918 AGM decided not to form WIs in towns

1919 Home and Country published for the first time (Mar 1919)

1919 Special General Meeting agreed a new national executive committee structure (15 Oct 1919) the AGM on 16 Oct 1919 agreed new constitution and rules for post war times

1919 first Consultative Council meeting

1919 General Endowment Fund started

1920 Grant of £10,000 made from the Development Commissioners for general organisation, with promise of continuing but decreasing grants until the movement should become self supporting

1920 Guild of Learners of Handicrafts set up

1921 Endowment fund started £12,000 raised

1921 First grant received from Development Commissioners for work with handicrafts

1922 system of annual voluntary donations to NFWI funds from County Federations on behalf of WIs started

1923 AGM decided that WI membership was open to women and girls only

1923 Formation of Welsh Counties Conference

1926 Last grant received from the Development Commissions for general organisation

1926 NFWI's claim for exemption from Income Tax allowed on appeal

1928 First National Drama Festival

1928 First report on the Constitution

1932 AGM decided that fares of all delegates to the meeting should be pooled

1932 Carnegie United Kingdom Trust (CUKT) grant awarded for 3 years to organise and increase WI Co-operative markets

1933 Associated Country Women of the World (ACWW) started

1939 First grant from the Development Commissioners for agricultural work

1939 Produce Guild Formed

1940 Questionnaire to WIs about experiences with housing evacuees, resulting in the report 'Town Children through Country eyes'

1940 First grant from Ministry of Food, NFWI began to administer the Ministry's fruit preservation scheme

1945 AGM instructed NFWI executive committee to establish a Women's Institute College

1946 Ministry of Food/NFWI preservation scheme ended

1946 NFWI Combined Arts Festival

1946 CUKT grant awarded to start WIs in the Channel Islands

1947 'Operation Produce' launched

1947 First WI in the Channel Islands established

1948 Denman College opened (24 Sep 1948)

1948 First grant received from the Ministry of Education of the 'development of liberal education for women'

1948 'Home Produce' Exhibition

1948 Second report on the Constitution

1949 First WI formed in the Isle of Man

1949 Federation of Wales committee set up

1950 Jersey and Guernsey Federations affiliated to NFWI

1950 National Singing Festival - 'Folk Songs of the Four Seasons' by Ralph Vaughan Williams - Albert Hall

1951 Isle of Man Federation affiliated to NFWI

1951 Denman College Endowment Fund established

1951 First WI Market Place at the Ideal Home Exhibition

1952 Crafts Exhibition at Victoria and Albert Museum

1955 AGM decision led to formation of Keep Britain Tidy Group

1957 National Drama Festival - 'Out of this Wood' commissioned Robert Gittins

1961 AGM pledges WI support for Freedom from Hunger Campaign

1961 WI Market Place at the Ideal Homes Exhibition

1962 NFWI 'Country Feasts and Festivals' competition at the Dairy Show

1963 National Art Exhibition 'Painting for Pleasure' at the Galleries of the Federation of British Artists

1965 WI Golden Jubilee celebrated

1965 AGM - rule limiting the formation of WIs to places with a population of under 4,000 rescinded

1968 National appeal for half a million pounds launched, to improve the financial position of NFWI

1969 'The Brilliant and the Dark' specially commissioned operatic sequence for women's voices by Malcolm Williamson and Ursula Vaughan Williams Performed in the Albert Hall by WI members

1969 National appeal reached target

1970 Third report on the Constitution

1970 CUKT grant for three year 'Town and Country Project'

1970 Queen Mother opened the new Teaching Centre at Denman College

1971 AGM agreed change to interpretation of the non-party political and non-sectarian rules

1971 Olive Farquharson elected world president of ACWW

1972 'This Green and Pleasant Land?' exhibition at Ideal Homes Exhibition at Olympia

1972 Produce and Handicraft Guilds ceased, to enable all WI members to share these activities without additional payment

1974 Local Government reorganisation of boundaries and NFWI decided to realign Federation boundaries

1975 WI Diamond Jubilee celebrated

1975 'Tomorrow's Heirlooms' exhibition at the Commonwealth Institute

1975 Avon and West Midlands, new Federations affiliated to NFWI

1976 AGM decided to allow the amount and division of the annual subscription to be decided in future by NFWI executive committee in consultation with Consultative Council representatives

1977 Humberside Federation affiliated to NFWI

1977 WI Book Ltd registered as a privately owned company

1978 Tyne and Wear north and South Federations affiliated to NFWI

1979 The Queen opened the Home Economics Centre at Denman College

1980 National Drama Festival 'Scene 80' finals at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre Stratford on Avon

1980 NFWI Wales office opened in Cardiff

1981 Consultative Council disbanded and National Council formed

1982 'Early one Morning' composed by Antony Hopkins performed by WI choirs.

1983 WI Promotion 'Women in the Community' launched

1983 Cleveland, East Yorkshire, North Yorkshire East, North Yorkshire West, South Yorkshire and West Yorkshire Federations affiliated to NFWI

1984 'WI Life and Leisure' Exhibition at Olympia

1985 £1 million appeal launched for essential repairs to Denman College and to set up .

1988 WI designed 'Countrywoman's Garden' won gold medal and the Wilkinson's sword at the Chelsea Flower Show

1990 NFWI became incorporated (company limited by Guarantee)

1990 NFWI HQ moved to Fulham;

1991 First Triennial General Meeting - Birmingham

1993 NFWI/NFU conference - 'Caring for the Countryside'

1994 'Rural Carers' conference

1995 WI Markets became independent of NFWI as 'Country Markets''

1998 'Pathway to the 21st century' launched

1999 'The Changing Village' published

2000 Prime minister Tony Blair spoke at AGM

2000 'Craft Spectacular' exhibition at Tatton Park, Cheshire

2000 NFWI web site launched

2002 'What women want' campaign

2003 'Chemicals and Health' campaign

2004 NFWI/National Needlework Archive project to record WI textiles

2004 NFWI archives deposited at The Women's Library

2005 '90@90' report published

MEMBERSHIP

Details of membership 1915-2005 are below. The year is given, followed by the number of WIs and then the total number of members:

1915 / 12

1916 / 37

1917 / 187 / 5,198

1918 / 773 / 12,007

1919 / 1,405 / 55,015

1920 / 1,914 / 99,418

1930 / 4,654 / 291,570

1939 / 5,720 / 331,600

1943 / 5,825 / 287,900

1947 / 6,682 / 379,000

1950 / 7,505 / 446,675

1954 / 8,178 / 467,000

1955 / 8,265 / 462,500

1956 / 8,314 / 457,000 (peak)

1960 / 8,489 / 444,737

1970 / 9,110 / 436,002

1981 / 9,306 (peak)

1985 / 9,242 / 353,502

1994 / 8,496 / 258,852

1997 / 8,047 / 257,700

2000 / 7,000 / 220,000

2005 / 6,800 / 211,000

Feminist and Women's Studies Association

Nelson , Jayne , Greenham Common Activist

Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp (1982-2000) was formed in response to NATO's decision in 1979 to base ground cruise missiles at Greenham Common. RAF Greenham Common had first became home to the US Army Air Force in Nov 1943, when the 354th Fighter Group moved in as part of the Allies efforts to meet the Nazi Government's aerial operations. Greenham Common, near Newbury in Berkshire, became a bomber operational training unit. Following the invasion of France, the Americans transferred their resources to France and Greenham Common reverted to RAF control until it was closed in 1946. However, as the Cold War began, it was reopened in 1951 as a US Strategic Air Command, coming into American Air Force operational control in Jun 1953. It was closed once more in 1961 only to be reopened in 1964, when it also became a NATO standby base. NATO's decision in 1979 to base ground cruise missiles at Greenham Common was a response to the proliferation of nuclear forces, which occurred throughout that decade. It was in the wake of this announcement that the Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp opened at this site. In Sep 1981 a Welsh group of 36 individuals opposed to nuclear power, called Women for Life on Earth, walked 120 miles from their headquarters to raise awareness of this issue and to protest against NATO's decision to site cruise missiles at Greenham Common. On reaching their destination they chained themselves to the perimeter fence and subsequently established a 'peace camp' there which was to remain for another two decades. The 'camp' itself consisted of nine smaller camps: the first was Yellow Gate, established the month after Women for Peace on Earth reached the airbase; others established in 1983 were Green Gate, the nearest to the silos, and the only entirely exclusive women-only camp at all times, the others accepting male visitors during the day; Turquoise Gate; Blue Gate with its new age focus; Pedestrian Gate; Indigo Gate; Violet Gate identified as being religiously focussed; Red Gate known as the artists gate; and Orange Gate. A central core of women lived either full-time or for stretches of time at any one of the gate camps with others staying for various lengths of time. From the beginning, links were formed with local feminist and anti-nuclear groups across the country while early support was received from the Women's Peace Alliance in order to facilitate these links and give publicity through its newsletter. In Mar 1982 the first blockade of the base occurred, staged by 250 women and during which 34 arrests were made. In May the first attempt to evict the peace camp was made as bailiffs and police attempted to clear the women and their possessions from the site. However, the camp was simply re-located to a nearby site. That same year, in Feb 1982 the camp went onto a women only footing and in Dec 1982, in response to chain letter sent out by organisers 30,000 women assembled to surround the site and 'embrace the base'. In Jan 1983 Newbury District Council revoked the common land bylaws for Greenham Common, becoming the private landlord for the site and instituting Court proceedings to reclaim eviction costs, actions that were ruled as illegal by the House of Lords in 1990. In Apr 1991, CND supporters staged action which involved 70,000 people forming a 14-mile human chain linking Burghfield, Aldermaston and Greenham. However, the first transfer of cruise missiles to the airbase occurred in Nov 1983. Another major event occurred in Dec 1983 when 50,000 women encircled the base, holding up mirrors and taking down sections of the fence, resulting in hundreds of arrests. In 1987, the Intermediate Nuclear Forces treaty was signed by the USA and the Soviet Union, and two years later in Aug 1989 the first step in the removal of cruise missiles from the Greenham Common airbase occurred, a process that was completed in Mar 1991. The American Air Force handed control of the base to the Royal Air Force in Sep 1992, who handed the base over to the Defence Land Agent three weeks later. On 1 Jan 2000 the last of the Greenham Common Women protestors left the camp. A memorial garden was erected after this - the only individual name included in the memorial was that of Helen Wynn Thomas who had died in an accident at Greenham on 5 Aug 1989.

Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp

Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp (1982-2000) was formed in response to NATO's decision in 1979 to base ground cruise missiles at Greenham Common. RAF Greenham Common had first became home to the US Army Air Force in Nov 1943, when the 354th Fighter Group moved in as part of the Allies efforts to meet the Nazi Government's aerial operations. Greenham Common, near Newbury in Berkshire, became a bomber operational training unit. Following the invasion of France, the Americans transferred their resources to France and Greenham Common reverted to RAF control until it was closed in 1946. However, as the Cold War began, it was reopened in 1951 as a US Strategic Air Command, coming into American Air Force operational control in Jun 1953. It was closed once more in 1961 only to be reopened in 1964, when it also became a NATO standby base. NATO's decision in 1979 to base ground cruise missiles at Greenham Common was a response to the proliferation of nuclear forces, which occurred throughout that decade. It was in the wake of this announcement that the Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp opened at this site. In Sep 1981 a Welsh group of 36 individuals opposed to nuclear power, called Women for Life on Earth, walked 120 miles from their headquarters to raise awareness of this issue and to protest against NATO's decision to site cruise missiles at Greenham Common. On reaching their destination they chained themselves to the perimeter fence and subsequently established a 'peace camp' there which was to remain for another two decades. The 'camp' itself consisted of nine smaller camps: the first was Yellow Gate, established the month after Women for Peace on Earth reached the airbase; others established in 1983 were Green Gate, the nearest to the silos, and the only entirely exclusive women-only camp at all times, the others accepting male visitors during the day; Turquoise Gate; Blue Gate with its new age focus; Pedestrian Gate; Indigo Gate; Violet Gate identified as being religiously focussed; Red Gate known as the artists gate; and Orange Gate. A central core of women lived either full-time or for stretches of time at any one of the gate camps with others staying for various lengths of time. From the beginning, links were formed with local feminist and anti-nuclear groups across the country while early support was received from the Women's Peace Alliance in order to facilitate these links and give publicity through its newsletter. In Mar 1982 the first blockade of the base occurred, staged by 250 women and during which 34 arrests were made. In May the first attempt to evict the peace camp was made as bailiffs and police attempted to clear the women and their possessions from the site. However, the camp was simply re-located to a nearby site. That same year, in Feb 1982 the camp went onto a women only footing and in Dec 1982, in response to chain letter sent out by organisers 30,000 women assembled to surround the site and 'embrace the base'. In Jan 1983 Newbury District Council revoked the common land bylaws for Greenham Common, becoming the private landlord for the site and instituting Court proceedings to reclaim eviction costs, actions that were ruled as illegal by the House of Lords in 1990. In Apr 1991, CND supporters staged action which involved 70,000 people forming a 14-mile human chain linking Burghfield, Aldermaston and Greenham. However, the first transfer of cruise missiles to the airbase occurred in Nov 1983. Another major event occurred in Dec 1983 when 50,000 women encircled the base, holding up mirrors and taking down sections of the fence, resulting in hundreds of arrests. In 1987, the Intermediate Nuclear Forces treaty was signed by the USA and the Soviet Union, and two years later in Aug 1989 the first step in the removal of cruise missiles from the Greenham Common airbase occurred, a process that was completed in Mar 1991. The American Air Force handed control of the base to the Royal Air Force in Sep 1992, who handed the base over to the Defence Land Agent three weeks later. On 1 Jan 2000 the last of the Greenham Common Women protestors left the camp. A memorial garden was erected after this - the only individual name included in the memorial was that of Helen Wynn Thomas who had died in an accident at Greenham on 5 Aug 1989.

The Girls' Friendly Society

The Girls' Friendly Society (GFS) (1875-fl 2008) was founded in 1875 by Mrs Mary Townsend (1841-1918). Mrs Townsend lived in the countryside and was a committed Christian, two aspects that influenced her work as a reformer. Townsend was concerned about unmarried girls who went from the countryside to work in large towns, often as servants or as factory workers. These girls were cut off from their families and friends and Townsend thought there should be a way to help these girls experience friendship and recreation in a fellowship of Christian love and service. Mrs Townsend initially worked with a rescue organisation in the Anglican Diocese of Winchester. She then put forward her ideas to other Anglicans who were interested in girls' welfare and in May 1874 a meeting was held at Lambeth Palace to discuss her ideas. This meeting was attended by five figures who helped to establish the Society: Mrs Tait, Mrs Harold Browne, Mrs Nassau Senior, the Reverend TV Fosbery and Mrs Townsend. During 1874 some small groups of girls with an 'Associate' leader began to meet and the Society was officially established on 1 Jan 1875. During 1874 the first lodge opened, St. Jude's Servant Home Brixton, and a list of seventy-one Associate members had been compiled. By 1 Jan 1875 work had started in four dioceses. One of the four dioceses was Winchester where Mrs Harold Browne, the wife of the Bishop, was a key supporter and three branches were speedily formed. Two associate members from Winchester Diocese were to become very important to the GFS: Mrs Joyce, who became a pioneer of protected Emigration for girls and women; and Charlotte Yonge, Winchester Diocesan Head of Literature, and a member of Winchester Diocesan Council. From 1875 the Mothers' Union of the Anglican Church became an Associate of the GFS - this began a long-term relationship between the two organisations. By the end of 1875 twenty-five branches had started work in fifteen Dioceses; the Associates numbered one thousand, while there were between two and three thousand Members. By 1878 the Society had branches throughout Britain. Branches were formed in manufacturing cities like Leeds and Manchester, whilst the Archbishop of York consented to become a Patron of the 'Northern Province'. There were also branches in Scotland and Ireland. The Society also spread to America, where it was first started in Nov 1877, by Elizabeth Mason, a rector's daughter in Lowell Massachusetts.

AIMS: The name of the Society was chosen to reflect ideals of Christian fellowship. 'Friendship' was seen as a gift and should be open to every girl or young woman willing to join, whilst as a 'Society', they could resolve that 'the world' should be 'bettered by banded womanhood', through the strong force of united prayer and activity. The objective of the Society was " … to bind together in one society Ladies as Associates and working girls and young men as members for mutual help (religious and secular) for sympathy and for prayer…to encourage purity of life, dutifullness to parents, faithfulness to employers and thrift'". In reality the society solely consisted of women, most of whom were unmarried and relatively young. The 'virtuousness' of character of the members was stressed as of key importance.

STRUCTURE: The structure of the Society began with the 'Branch' the informal groups of members that were led by an 'Associate'. From 1897 younger girls from ages seven to fourteen joined as 'Candidates'. Branches spread rapidly with membership being strongest in the countryside. As membership grew and the functions of the Society became more varied the initial simple, centralised organisation also needed to develop. Initially there were four Departments established at the first Central Meeting in 1877. By 1879 there were six Departments, and a Finance Committee had been appointed. Also in 1879 a conference of branch secretaries considered the necessity of appointing a Secretary of Council to relieve Townsend's workload. The titles of the early 'Departments', reflect the scope of the work: Girls in Factories, Girls in Business, Workhouse Girls, Registries, Industrial Training, Sick Members, Needlework, Literature (including libraries), Lodges and Homes of Rest. These 'Departments' did much work in improving the conditions in which girls worked, in finding jobs, in providing training, living accommodation, books, magazines, in catering for holidays and for girls whose health had broken down. The regional structure of the society reflected that of the Church of England: i.e. the parish and the diocese. A Central Council with London Headquarters led the Society, the offices were originally at Brixton, then Vauxhall Bridge Road, and after two more moves spent forty-eight years in Victoria. As more overseas groups were established, 'Treaties' were made with the various Societies so that in each country the GFS was independent. Also, in England and Wales, though Central Council decided matters of policy and constitution each Diocese had an amount of freedom (and by meeting local needs retained local characteristics).

DEVELOPMENT: As the Society became established resources the Departments and their resources were developed. Equally, as social conditions improved some services ceased to be required. Hence, the Barbazon Home for incurably sick members and the Meath Home for epileptics ceased to be needed when the hospital services improved. The need for books, training courses and employment bureaux came to be provided by the local authority. However, residential hostels and holiday houses continued to be needed, and girls continued to want the opportunity offered by the branch meeting of worshipping, relaxing and giving service together.

CONSTITUTION: The approval of the Constitution followed a lengthy consultation period. The draft constitution was prepared for the Meeting of the Central Council on 4 Jun 1878. It was further considered at meetings and was trialled throughout 1879 with practical feedback from all levels of the Society. The Constitution was then discussed by the Anglican Church, on 1 Feb 1880 it was discussed at a Bishops' meeting held at Lambeth, with special attention to the sections dealing with the relation of the Society to the Church, and the standard of Purity, as essential to membership. During May 1880, the final meetings with regards to the Constitution and amendments were held in the National Society's room in Westminster, the President met with representatives from the twenty-six Dioceses in which the GFS was working at this time. The close link between the Church and the Society was testified to in the opening clauses, which stated that the Archbishops of Canterbury and York should be ex-officio Presidents, and the Bishops of the two Provinces ex-officio Vice-Presidents of the Society. The importance of the Central Rules was indicated and their permanence guaranteed by the last chapter, which contained the clause that they should not be altered without the consent of a majority of Associates and Members of the Society. Over the passing of time this clause was put into operation for various reasons and the Rules, though not altered, were re-affirmed and re-worded. 1880, the year which witnessed the completion of the Constitution was marked also by the consent of Queen Victoria becoming its Patron.

CENTRAL OFFICE: Although the branches were decentralised (in a similar way to the Women's Institute structure) the Central Office carried out key responsibilities. The Central Office started under the charge of Miss Hawkesley in St Jude's Home, Brixton, it was moved in 1877 to 245, Vauxhall Bridge Road, at the close of 1881 it was transferred to 5 Victoria Mansions and again in 1892 to 39 Victoria Street, in 1925 the GFS established in its final home in Townsend House. The increasing amount and variety of the work done within its walls marked each move. In 1911 the Central Council took the step that the Society be registered as a company under the Companies Act. A separate committee was appointed to deal with the subject, and the constitution was revised appropriately. The first meeting of the 'Incorporated Central Council' as its full title became, was held on Nov 1913. The Central Council then met three times a year. The President, Vice-Presidents, Heads of Departments, Correspondents and Elected Members were elected annually by the whole Council. Among the functions of the Central Council was that of key appointments, such as the Society Solicitors, Secretary, the Executive members, and members of the GFS committees.

WARTIME AND INTERWAR: During both World Wars, the GFS hostels housed many girls on war work and in 1914 the hostels in the South took in many women who had returned destitute from jobs on the Continent. There was the 'White Horse' project when an East End London pub was taken over as a social centre. Notices were also posted in railway station ladies-waiting- rooms, giving an address where girls temporarily stranded could apply for help. From the 1920s GFS Summer Camps were the only holiday possible for many girls. In 1922, the Reading Union held a week at Winchester House, Shanklin that foreshadowed the Summer schools held much later in the 1990s - proving the popularity and need for this service. The Princess Mary Caravan, was the first mobile training and publicity unit, established in 1922. A second caravan was bought in 1964 when money became available through the King George V Jubilee Trust. In some areas close links with the Guide movement were made and branches were of GFS Guides and Brownies. The first mixed branch, locally known as the 'G and B', was started during the war of 1939-1945. Yet, apart from that 'White Crusade' the driving sense of purpose seemed lacking during these years and membership numbers reduced.

THE TOWNSEND MEMBER'S FELLOWSHIP: One important decision was made during the period: the creation of the Townsend Member's Fellowship. In England and Wales, members had continued to belong to the Society long after they had ceased to be 'Girls'. In the USA it was agreed that except for leaders and officials there should be no adult members of the Society, but in England and Wales the Townsend Member's Fellowship, later to become the The Townsend Fellowship, was started in 1947. The Townsend Fellowship came to have its own officers, meetings and programme material, but maintained its close link with the GFS.

ACTIVITIES: Holidays for deprived children, story time, hospital visiting - these three services reflect the pattern that developed in the GFS. In the early days of the organisation, members operated for being 'Good', this changed over the years to 'Useful'. An emphasis on leadership training developed: both the training for working as a leader which was needed in a professional society, but also a perceived need for Christian leaders in an increasingly secular world. This was one of the reasons for the development of training course for girls in industry, which was tried experimentally in 1996, and became an important part of the Society's work.

HOSTELS: Winchester House, Shanklin, on the Isle of Wight, was given to the Society in 1893 was particularly important to the Society. For a period it was used as a war convalescent home. Later in the 20th century it was used for Summer schools, as a parish holiday centre and for conferences. In 1955, an International Conference was held there, which led, the following year, to the formation of the Girls' Friendly Society World Council.

WORLD COUNCIL: The first World Council, in 1956, was held in Switzerland: with subsequent meetings in Australia, Ireland, Japan and the USA. These meetings made it possible for officials and members to meet their counterparts from across the world. The Council discussed matters of common interest such as programme material and leadership training, as well as sponsorship of particular projects such as those in Korea, Guyana and the Philippines. The launch of World Day of Prayer, taking place on the 29 September, indicated the importance to members of the GFS as a global Society.

As at 2008 the work done by the GFS was still in great demand. The Society continued to exist under the name 'GFS Platform'. As one of the first charities set up to work with young women in England and Wales, GFS had a valuable history and extensive experience of providing care and support for girls and young women.

Mary Elizabeth Townsend (1841-1918) was the founder of The Girls Friendly Society (GFS). This was the first organised society for women and girls in connection with the Church of England. Mrs Townsend began to think of the Girls Friendly Society during the winter of 1871-1872 but did not approach the leaders of the Church of England until 1874 that definite steps were taken to shape the organisation. The meeting 'of five' took place in May 1874 at Lambeth Palace and included: Mrs Tair, Mrs Harold Browne, Mars Nassau Senior, Mrs Townsend and the Rev TV Fosbery Vicar of St Giles, Reading. They decided that the society should be called the 'The Girl's Friendly Society'. The Girls Friendly Society officially started on 1 Jan 1875, with Mrs Townsend elected President. Mary Townsend edited the journal, Friendly Leaves, first issued quarterly in 1876, but increased to monthly in 1877. Due to overwork Mrs Townsend had a breakdown in health; in Jun 1879 it was proposed that all branch secretaries and council members would subscribe towards the cost of a Travelling Secretary to assist Mrs Townsend. Mrs Townsend was President of the Central Council until 1882 when she gave up the office and the Hon Lady Grey was elected in her place. Mrs Townsend undertook the Department for Members and also the editorship of the Society's magazines for the next five years. Then in 1890, on Lady Grey's resignation she again took up the post of President until 1901 when Mrs Chaloner Chute took over. After her husband, Frederick Townsend, died on 16 Dec 1905 Mrs Townsend excused herself from GFS work for a year, but thereafter returned to assist the organisation. In particular she developed links with Mrs Temple, wife of the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Missionary Society . Mrs Townsend also formed a Church Needlework Guild, which was subsequently named "The Guild of Church Needlecrafts". In 1914 Mrs Townsend had an operation which, although successful, took her a long time to recover from. Her health deteriorated (influenza and neuralgia). Mary Elizabeth Townsend died on 14 Jun 1918.

Hackney Women's Aid

League of Church Militant

London Feminist History Group

Miss Great Britain

Miss Great Britain (1945-c 1990) was one of several beauty contests introduced in seaside resorts around the country in the years after World War Two. Towns like Eastbourne, Weston-Super-Mare, Great Yarmouth, Cleethorpes and Skegness staged contests, but the main focus was the Lancashire and North Wales coast: Rhyl, New Brighton, Southport, Blackpool, Fleetwood and Morecambe. In Morecambe such beauty contests were staged in the resort in the new Super Swimming Stadium as entertainment spectaculars for the holidaymakers. Morecambe was home to the Miss Great Britain competition between 1956 and 1989. Originally called the Bathing Beauty Queen, the contest began in the Summer of 1945, as the "Bathing Beauty Queen", organised by the Local Council in partnership with the 'Sunday Dispatch' newspaper. The first final was watched by 4,300 people in a continuous downpour. The winner, chosen by the film star Michael Rennie, was an 18 year old Morecambe girl Lydia Reid, a civil service typist, who received a cup and a paltry prize (according to the local paper) of seven guineas as well as a swimsuit. Prize money increased over the years. The contests were a new kind of entertainment for the holiday-maker. Aimed at a family audience organisers hoped that the men would enjoy watching pretty girls, the women would enjoy picking their favourites (or commenting on the others) and the little girls would dream of being bathing beauties when they grew up. The entrants themselves had the promise of cash prizes, as well as possible fame and fortune to follow. In the early days Morecambe and Heysham Council in association with the 'Sunday Dispatch' hosted the competition. As a preliminary to the personal appearance heats at Morecambe, photographic heats held in conjunction with the newspaper attracted contestant from all over the country. In 1946 the first prize was increased by the local authority to £100. Due to the success and popularity of the contest, the prize was further increased in 1947 to £500, and then to £1000 in the fifties. This by any standards was rapid progress, and throughout the years the contest has continued to offer the largest prize fund of any competition run by a municipal authority. The 1950s and 1960s saw the hey-day of the seaside beauty contest, these decades also saw the zenith of the British seaside holiday. Increasing prosperity meant that more and more families could take a fortnight's holiday on the coast and seaside towns were in competition for a growing market. Many seaside towns believed that beauty contests were important in gaining publicity for the town, in Morecambe, beauty contests were seen as second only to the Illuminations as the major tourist attraction. Throughout the 34 years prior to 2004, judges for the heats and finals were selected from personalities from all walks of life. Press and publishers, stars of stage, screen and television, peers and politicians joining sportsmen and a bishop. Over the years the Competition was sponsored by various internationally known companies, in 1978 Pontin's Holidays Ltd were the main sponsors yet previous sponsors included supermarket companies. As the contest grew, heats were held at various ballrooms throughout the country and at events staged in conjunction with other local authorities. The winners of these heats, together with the winners of the weekly seasonal heats held each Wednesday afternoon in Morecambe during the summer, were invited to the Grand Final. The competition was held annually on the last Wednesday afternoon in August, a pattern followed up to and including 1970. Each Grand Final was a parade in swimwear before a panel of judges. The Foreword to the official 1962 Miss Great Britain programme states "when the Morecambe Corporation started the contest in 1945, they introduced to the attractions of the seaside holiday, a new form of entertainment which has now become a big part of Show Business. As the years go by, the size of our audiences shows no signs of diminishing, the standard of our beautiful competitors improves steadily and the Contest remains as popular as ever." But, during the sixties, the British seaside holiday started to lose out to other types of holiday. Increasing car ownership meant that many families had a wider choice of destinations and some families could afford to go abroad for certain sun, rather than taking pot-luck in Southport or Scarborough. And, the girls' names were changing. The Normas, Irenes, Margarets and Maureens of the early years were replaced in the sixties by Judiths, Cheryls, Carols and Sheilas. But the format - and the cliches - of the contests were well established: results in reverse order; mothers apparently entering their daughters without their knowledge; and the judges saying that they were looking for the "friendly, girl-next-door type". Usually over 20 contestants entered the heats. Their jobs were receptionists and models, secretaries and students, young women who either wanted to further their careers in fashion or beauty or who took the opportunity of the difference offered by the seaside scene to make themselves glamorous. 1971 saw a change in this pattern. This was brought about by the involvement of television. After long negotiations agreement was reached between the Council and Yorkshire Television Ltd. for the Grand Final to be recorded and for the event to be broadcast by the whole of the independent television network. It was suggested by Yorkshire Television that the Grand Final for 1971 should be changed in format to create a more spectacular programme for the viewers. The Grand Final was therefore recorded in three parts - Swimwear Parade (at the Super Swimming Stadium), Daywear Parade (at the Promenade Gardens), Evening Wear Parade (from the stage of a local theatre) followed by the presentation and Crowning Ceremony. This format was found to be completely successful and was followed to at least 2004. Prior to 1971 winners of the various preliminary heats automatically qualified to take part in the Grand Final of over 40 finalists. The changes in the Grand Final, the introduction of televised contest winners and the limitation of transmission time necessitated a curtailment of the numbers of Grand Finalists, achieved by introducing a semi-final parade. During more recent years the staging of many more heats throughout the country further enlarged the contest and necessitated the introduction of Regional Finals. In 1978, in co-operation with the main sponsors Pontin's Holidays Ltd. and other subsidiary benefactors, the local authority (now Lancaster City Council) offered a prize-fund of over £10,000 to encourage the most beautiful girls in the country to enter. During her term of office Miss Great Britain was contracted to Lancaster City Council who were her sole agent and she was to be available through them to undertake promotional personal appearances at home or abroad. Past title holders visited countries all over the world carrying out their duties as ambassadors for the resort (and indeed the country). Immediately after her crowning Miss Great Britain undertook a publicity tour of the country, lasting about eight days, making personal appearances and attending press calls. By 2003 this tour was arranged in conjunction with Button Farshaw Group, who lent one of their cars to the winner for her year of office, and Trust House Forte Ltd, who attended to accommodation arrangements. The falling popularity of seaside resorts was later mirrored by a fall in the popularity of beauty contests. In some ways, this was a contradiction since national and international contests were now being covered by television and, indeed, the Miss World contests had high audience figures in the 1970s. However, the British public were seeking more sophisticated forms of holiday entertainment, questions were being asked about what the contests represented and the opportunities open to young women were changing. The eighties saw the end of a number of seaside beauty contests. Rhyl, Great Yarmouth and Morecambe took decisions to end their contests. Other towns moved the contests from the swimming-pools to other venues and, more dramatically, New Brighton finished its contest when the swimming pool was destroyed by winter gales. So, the local councils that had started the contests after the War were now asking themselves whether these were events they should be involved with. The contests were becoming less acceptable and less popular as seaside attractions. But there were still attractive young women - now Debbies, Traceys, Clares and Joannes - interested in entering the contests, there were mothers right there behind them and there were still enough people prepared to watch for a pleasant hour or two.- Please note - the archive dates from 1945-1982 only. At the start of the 1990s, only Southport, Blackpool and Fleetwood were staging traditional seaside beauty contests and that decade saw further decline. There were decreasing numbers of contestants and fewer people wanting to watch. In particular, more young women had better career opportunities than in the past, meaning that fewer had the time to spend summer afternoons entering heats across the country. The seaside towns themselves were also adapting to the different ways in which people used their holidays. They had to re-think their marketing. By the 1990s Southport and Blackpool were able to do this successfully: Morecambe less so. By the end of the 1990s, Southport had finished its contest because it wanted to diversify its afternoon entertainments on the Prom and Blackpool's contest had changed from swimwear in the afternoon into club-wear for the evening. So Miss Wyre at Fleetwood was the only traditional seaside beauty contest to make it into the new century, finishing in 2002, although Miss Blackpool continued successfully in its new format. In the early 1990s the title 'Miss Great Britain' was purchased by new owners, an organisation that became known as 'Miss Great Britain Organisation'. By 2004 Miss Great Britain was still running as a beauty competition and was part of the growing commercialisation and publicity wing of the beauty industry. By 2004 the organisers sourced their own contestants, with applicants filling out a form and sending in a photograph. There were no local heats, rather a panel reduced the number to 60 finalists. The main winner of the Miss Great Britain competition then went on to enter the 'Miss Tourism' competition. Finalists other than the winner were also eligible to enter 'Model of the World', 'Miss Bikini', 'Miss Internet' and 'Model of the Universe', 'Miss Millionaire'. Whilst 'Mr Tourism World' was an equivalent male contest from the same organisation. A separate organisation provided the 'Miss World' competition, illustrating that beauty competitions were continuing well into the new millennium.

LIST OF WINNERS FROM 1945 - 1989

1945 Lydia Read

1946 June Rivers

1947 June Mitchell

1948 Pamela Bayliss

1949 Elaine Pryce

1950 Violet Pretty

1951 Marlene Dee

1952 Dorothy Dawn

1953 Brenda Mee

1954 Patricia Butler

1955 Jennifer Chimes

1956 Iris Waller

1957 Leila Williams

1958 Christine Mayo

1959 Valerie Martin

1960 Eileen Sheridan

1961 Libby Walker

1962 Joy Black

1963 Gillian Taylor

1964 Carole Redhead

1965 Diane Hickinbotham

1966 Carole Fletcher

1967 Jennifer Gurley

1968 Yvonne Ormes

1969 Wendy Anne George

1970 Kathleen Winstanley

1971 Carolyn Moore

1972 Elizabeth Robinson

1973 Gay Spink

1974 Marylin Ward

1975 Susan Cuff

1976 Dinah May

1977 Susan Hempel

1978 Patricia Morgan

1979 TV Strike forced re-timing of contest

1980 Sue Berger

1981 Michelle Hobson

1982 Tracey Dodd / Viviennne Farnen

1983 Rose McGrory

1984 Debbie Greenwood

1985 Jill Saxby

1986 Lesley Ann Musgrave

1987 Linzi Butler

1988 Gillian Bell

1989 Amanda Dyson

Mothers in Action

Mothers in Action (1967-c 1977) was established in 1967 by five unsupported mothers who joined together to improve the conditions in which they were living and bringing up their children. The group was founded with a £10 grant from the National Council for the Unmarried Mother and her Child (later NCOPF). The aim of MIA was 'To press for the best possible status for unsupported mothers and their children'. The four objectives of the group were: (1) To encourage unsupported mothers to improve their own conditions through participation in the activities of the group and any other organisation with which the group may be associated. (2) To press for improvements in the status of and facilities for unsupported mothers and their children, by representation to local authorities or government departments and by specially conducted campaigns. (3) To disseminate information of special interest to unsupported mothers and similarly to encourage their personal contribution to current research into their problems. (4) To encourage social contact between unsupported mothers; to reduce isolation and to enable them to make the fullest part of life in the community. Services offered to members included distribution of a newsletter, accommodation register, fact sheets, baby-sitting register and the existence of local groups. By 1969 membership of Mothers In Action had grown to 1000 countrywide, with some members living abroad. The organisation existed as a pressure group for unsupported mothers, both employed and unemployed. The group included single mothers, divorced, separated or deserted wives, widows and married women whose husbands were serving prison sentences or were incapable of supporting them by virtue of mental or physical handicaps. Membership was divided into Ordinary Members - Unsupported Mothers - and Associate Member- everyone else. In 1972 the group was revised and formal membership abolished (effective 1 Mar 1972). The aim was now rephrased: 'To press for the best possible status for one parent families regardless of race, religion or nationality'. The decision was made to focus on pressure activities rather than services to members.

SUMMARY OF CAMPAIGNS: 1970-1975 Housing; 1960s Equal pay; 1968-1970 Day Nursery Campaign; 1968 Adoption; 1973 Target Campaign on Maternity Leave; 1973-1974 Day care campaign; 1974 School age mothers; 1974 Parents' legal rights, in conjunction with Brunel University.

Married Women's Association

The Married Women's Association (1938-1988) was formed in 1938 as a result of the failed attempts of the Equal Rights International Group, set up by members of the Six Point Group, to persuade the League of Nations to incorporate an Equal Rights Treaty in the Equal Rights International Group Constitution. Juanita Frances had been working in Geneva as part of the operative. After three unsuccessful meetings she drew up plans for a separate organisation to work chiefly for the rights of housewives and mothers and the Married Women's Association was born. It was to be a 'non - party and non - sectarian' association and its management was initially conducted at 20 Buckingham Street, London WC2. Prominent members included Edith (later Baroness) Summerskill, Vera Brittain, Helena Normanton and Lady Helen Nutting. Edith (later Baroness) Summerskill was the association's first president, other presidents included Vera Brittain and Juanita Frances. The aims of the Association were to: a) promote legislation to regulate the financial relations between husband and wife as between equal partners; b) secure for the mother and children a legal right to a share in the marital home; c) secure equal guardianship rights for both parents; d) extent the National Insurance Acts to include women on the same terms as men. The Association later included additional objectives, which were to: e) extend family allowances; f) establish equal pay; g) awaken women to their full political responsibilities. In order to achieve these goals members conducted deputations to ministers; held public meetings, debates and social activities and the Association published its own newsletters, namely: Wife and Citizen (1945-1951) and the Married Women's Association Newsletter [1966-1987]. In 1952 a significant disagreement between members led to a split within the Association. Helena Normanton had prepared evidence for submission to the Royal Commission on Marriage and Divorce and she had included proposals, which other members vehemently objected to. It was felt that the evidence was for the benefit of privileged women and as such, the position of ordinary women would remain at a disadvantage, which would be contrary to the Association's objectives. Helena Normanton and Mrs Gorsky (Chair) left to form the Council of Married Women and were joined by Lady Helen Nutting. The Married Women's Association continued up until the 1980s. A rough minute book entry of 6 Dec 1981 states that there will be no further meetings due to ill health and family commitments. However, the records contain Executive and AGM minutes to 1983 and correspondence to 1988. The extension of family allowances, establishment of equal pay and helping women to recognise their political responsibilities became later objectives. 'Wife and Citizen' (1945-1951) and the 'MWA Newsletter' were the official organs of the Association.

National Women Citizens Association

The National Women Citizens Association (1917-1975) was founded in 1917 at a time of concern in how women could be active citizens. After decades of campaigning for women's suffrage, initiatives were established to lay the foundations of women's informed political participation in the early part of the twentieth century. From 1913, autonomous local Women Citizen's Associations were formed throughout the United Kingdom following Eleanor Rathbone's initiatives in Liverpool and Manchester. Their aim was to stimulate women's interest in social and political issues in order to prepare them for active citizenship. When it became evident in 1917 that women were about to be awarded the parliamentary vote, more of these organisations were established. In Jun 1917, the National Union of Women Workers called a meeting of British women's organisations at which the issues surrounding this were discussed. It was here that the NUWW drew up the Provisional Central Committee on the Citizenship of Women, with members drawn from interested societies, though acting in a private capacity. It was their intention to continue to stimulate interest through the work of the existing societies but also to help form local groups that would affiliate to this central body. At the Nov 1917 conference of the 42 affiliated societies of the National Union of Women Workers, the plans and procedures of the new body were accepted by the Executive Committee. The first election of the Central Committee took place that Dec 1917, followed by a change of name to the National Women Citizen's Association. Helena Normanton was the first Secretary. In early 1918 the first of the local branches began to appear and when, in that year, the franchise was finally given to women, the numbers of affiliated organisations increased as suffrage groups changed their names and objectives to fit new circumstances. During the early 1920s a number of Women's Local Government Society branches affiliated, eventually becoming women's citizenship groups when the parent body dissolved in 1925. This saw the NWCA assume greater responsibility for work in the area of local government through the second half of this decade and into the 1930s. Despite this, there was a decline in interest and activity in the group before the Second World War. However, this situation was reversed after the war. In 1947, the organisation amalgamated with the National Council for Equal Citizenship and then, in 1949, with Women for Westminster. There was a corresponding increase in activity leading up to the Festival of Britain in 1951, so that in the 1950s it was necessary to reorganise the local branches into five regional federations. Local branches continued to be established into the 1960s. However, there was a another decrease in activity and the NWCA disbanded in 1974 despite some local branches continuing and an attempt being made by some former officers to revive the group in 1975.

The National Women's Register

The National Women's Register; 1960-fl.2007 was established in 1960 by Maureen Nicol. Nicol was a Wirral housewife who wrote in response to an article in The Guardian, 'perhaps housebound wives with liberal interests and a desire to remain individuals could form a national register so that whenever one moves one can contact like-minded friends?' This became the 'Liberal-minded Housebound Wives' Register', quickly renamed the 'Housebound Wives' Register' with Nicol as the first national organiser. Local groups were formed which organised activities autonomously but which were administered on a regional basis. A national newsletter was published giving news of group activities, spread of membership and profiles of members. When the second national organiser, Brenda Prys-Jones, took over in 1962, the organisation had grown in size but remained financially unstable. It was not until 1966 that the organisation became known as the National Housewives' Register and it was 1967 before the first National Conference was held in Buxton. The following year the first overseas groups were created in Australia and Canada. By 1970 there were 15,000 members, making it necessary to appoint joint paid National Organisers. In 1973 the Register began to undertake a process which led to the election of the first National Group at the Bristol Conference in 1976 by which time there were 800 groups and 19,000 members. 1977 saw the launch of the overseas Newsletter, 'Register Worldwide' and in 1980 the group was granted Charitable Status with: Maureen Nicol, Betty Jerman and Mary Stott appointed as trustees. That same year membership rose to 22,000 and an international conference was held in Buckinghamshire. The following year Betty Jerman published 'The Lively-Minded Women', a history of the first 20 years of NHR and by 1982 28 countries had affiliated groups. Four years later the NHR became a Charitable Company limited by guarantee while the Research Bank and the subsidised workshop scheme were also established. The organisation's name was changed to the National Women's Register in 1987 following a postal ballot of all members. However, the late 1980s saw the beginning of a gradual fall in membership that was to continue through the following decade. To combat this a process of regionalisation began which continued into the mid-1990s. By 1998 it became necessary to organise consultation days to discuss future directions which only 24% of affiliated groups attended. The choice offered was between (a) winding down, (b) appointing a professional Executive Officer or (c) a board of 5 Trustee Directors and 2/3 National Co-ordinators, with larger honoraria and the use of consultants. Option (c) was chosen by the 39% of members who returned their voting slips. The following year the lack of enough co-ordinating volunteers to maintain the National Group made it necessary to appoint paid staff to this function and the National Group was dissolved at the AGM held at the National Conference in Exeter. In 2001 Membership stood at around 7,800.

Open Door Council

The Open Door Council (1926-1965) was established in 1926. After 1918, women over the age of thirty became entitled to vote for their MP and women's organisations that had previously campaigned for women's suffrage began to concern themselves with a wider range of issues. The sudden mass redundancy of women who had occupied traditionally male-dominated jobs between 1914 and 1918 focussed attention on the issue of women's employment and financial inequality. At the same time, they concerned themselves with the ongoing issue that had first been raised in the previous century: restrictive legislation such as limiting working hours which applied only to women and with the aim of 'protecting' them against industrial exploitation. However, there was no consensus within the movement regarding the appropriate response to protective legislation. An ideological split occurred at this time between those on the one hand who supported ideas such as an 'Endowment of Motherhood' which was intended to be paid to women to ensure their financial independence and, on the other, those who adopted a more strictly equalist position. In the mid-1920s, the Labour government proposed a series of bills which would extend this protective legislation and the National Union of Societies for Equal Citizenship of the time was being pressurised to change its equalist policies on the issue. In response to this situation, the Open Door Council was established in May 1926 by Lady Rhonnda (Six Point Group), Elizabeth Abbott (NUSEC), Miss Clegg (London Society for Women's Service), Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence (Women's Freedom League) and Virginia Crawford (St Joan's Social and Political Alliance). The new groups object was to ensure a woman's opportunities, right to work and to protection at all stages of her life were the same as those of a man. By Jun 1927, the six members of the National Union of Societies for Equal Citizenship who resigned over the issue of protective policies had joined their organisation. From its creation, the group intended to organise an international group to further their aims. In its first year, an international committee was formed and in Jun 1929 it held a conference in Berlin for individuals and organisations concerned with equality within the workplace. From this emerged a group called the Open Door International for the Economic Emancipation of the Woman Worker. The British parent body continued its work through the next decade, from 1933 spearheading the movement for the right of married women to work. During the Second World War, they campaigned on issues such as female volunteers in the Civil Defence Services receiving two-thirds the man's pay and compensation rate provided for by the Personal Injuries (Emergency Provisions) Act of 1939 by traditional constitutional methods: deputations to the appropriate government ministers, public rallies and letters to major newspapers. They were also closely involved in the Equal Compensation Campaign from 1941 to 1943 and subsequently had representatives beside the Six Point Group and the Fawcett Society on the committee of the Equal Pay Campaign from 1944 to ensure equal pay in the Civil Service. The group was finally wound up in 1965.

Open Door International for the Economic Emancipation of the Woman Worker

Open Door International for the Economic Emancipation of the Woman Worker (1929-1974) was established in 1929. After 1918, women over the age of thirty became entitled to vote for their MP and women's organisations that had previously campaigned for women's suffrage began to concern themselves with a wider range of issues. The sudden mass redundancy of women who had occupied traditionally male-dominated jobs between 1914 and 1918 focussed attention on the issue of women's employment and financial inequality. At the same time, they concerned themselves with the ongoing issue that had first been raised in the previous century: restrictive legislation such as limiting working hours which applied only to women and with the aim of 'protecting' them against industrial exploitation. However, there was no consensus within the movement regarding the appropriate response protective legislation. An ideological split occurred at this time between those who supported ideas such as an 'Endowment of Motherhood' to women to allow their financial independence and those who adopted a more strictly equalist position. In the mid-1920s, the Labour government proposed a series of bills which would extend this protective legislation and the National Union of Societies for Equal Citizenship of the time was being pressurised to change its equalist policies on the issue. In response to this situation, the Open Door Council was established in May 1926. Its object was to ensure a woman's opportunities, right to work and to protection at all stages of her life were the same as those of a man. From its creation, the group intended to organise an international group to further their aims. The Open Door Council always hoped to be an international group and in its first year, an international committee was formed. In Jun 1929 it held a conference in Berlin for individuals and organisations concerned with equality within the workplace. From this emerged a group called the Open Door International for the Economic Emancipation of the Woman Worker with Chrystal Macmillan as the first president. Sympathetic individuals and organisations from 21 countries supported the group until the Second World War, but when the first post-war meeting was called in 1945 for board members of international branches, several previously flourishing branches failed to send representatives. Conferences resumed in 1948, but its sphere of influence shrank to Scandinavia, Belgium and Britain in the 1950s and the decline continued through the next decade. The organisation dwindled until it came to an end, without any winding up meeting, in 1974.

National Council of One Parent Families

The National Council for One Parent Families (NCOPF) (1918-fl 2006) was originally established in Feb 1918, under the name the National Council for the Unmarried Mother and her Child (NCUMC). Its primary concern at that time was infant mortality and the welfare of unmarried mothers and their illegitimate children. The organisation was formed following a National Conference organised by the Child Welfare Council of the Social Welfare Association for London, which was held at Mansion House on 14 Feb 1918. The conference was the result of a Child Welfare Inquiry, which had been established by the Social Welfare Association in London in 1914.

The first Council meeting in Apr 1918 appointed a Chair, Hon. Secretaries and an Executive Committee. The original functions were: 1) To obtain reform of the existing Bastardy Acts and Affiliation Acts; 2) To secure the provision of adequate accommodation to meet the varying needs of mothers and babies throughout the country, with the special aim of keeping mother and child together; 3) To deal with individual enquiries from, or on behalf of, unmarried mothers.

Funds were acquired via public funding and voluntary donations. On 4 Jan 1946 the Society was incorporated.

World War Two saw a huge increase in the number of women turning to the Council for assistance. The election of a Labour government, after the war, saw the expansion of the Welfare State following the findings of the Beveridge Report. This changed the focus of the Council away from providing direct aid towards explaining the complexities of the benefit system.

The 1960s and 1970s saw the Council return to its original function as a pressure group. The change of name to the National Council for One Parent Families occurred in 1973. It had been proposed in Feb 1972 and the new name reflected the Council catering for all lone parents. With the election of a Conservative government in 1979, the Council's priorities change, a Back to Work strategy was launched that promoted employment opportunities for lone parents. In 2004 the Council aimed to promote the welfare of lone parents and their children by helping to overcome the poverty, isolation and social exclusion faced by many. In 2007 National Council for One Parent Families and Gingerbread merged to become one organisation.

St Joan's International Alliance (German Section)

St Joan's Social & Political Alliance (1923-1954) was created in 1923, when the Catholic Women's Suffrage Society (1911-1923) changed its name as the society refocused its aims on a wider scale to consider social issues affecting women. From this time on, its international work expanded, from becoming a founder member of the liaison committee of international female organisations in 1924 to the presentation of a report to the League of Nations on the subject of female status in African and Asian states in 1937. This international work continued after the Second World War. Its areas of interest now included the slave trade, women's education and professional development, employment, divorce, prostitution and marital abuse, advising the United Nations on these matters and becoming recognised as an official consultative body by the UN, UNESCO and the World Labour Organisation since 1952. St Joan's Social and Political Alliance became known as the Great Britain and Northern Ireland Section of the St Joan's International Alliance in 1954.

The German section of St Joan's International Alliance was established around 1950 and remained small throughout its existence, with only 25-50 members throughout West Germany at any time. However, it had considerable influence, especially in the 1960s under the presidency of Dr Luise Bardenhewer. Mary Dittrich was secretary from 1974 and the section was dissolved in 1980 on her resignation. Along with the international group, it was active in efforts to support the introduction of women priests after the Vatican Council of 1961, as well as being concerned with the general issues of the status of women both inside and outside the Catholic Church.

Prominent individuals: -

Secretaries: Anne Branksiepe 1952-1957; Dr Luise Bardenhewer 1958-1971; Iima Reissner 1972-c 1974; Mary Dittrich 1974-1981 (closure).

Chair: Dr Margarethe von Miller from 1966; Dr Maria Schulter-Hermkes - date unknown; Professor Ursula Kemp. Since 1991 Head of Theology/ Religious studies at Bristol University.

Society for the Ministry of Women in the Church

Six Point Group

The Six Point Group (1921-1983) was founded in 1921, soon after the granting of limited franchise to women in 1918. In this period the issues that women's organisations now had to deal with widened considerably to encompass general issues of women's social and economic status and their lack of equality with men under the law and in the professions. The Six Point Group was founded in 1921 by Lady Rhondda with six very specific aims in mind: 1) satisfactory legislation on child assault; 2) satisfactory legislation for the widowed mother; 3) satisfactory legislation for the unmarried mother and her child; 4) equal rights of guardianship for married parents; 5) equal pay for teachers and 6) equal opportunities for men and women in the civil service. These later evolved into six general points of equality for women: political, occupational, moral, social, economic and legal. During the 1920s, the group campaigned on strictly equality-based principles and was active in trying to have the League of Nations pass an Equal Rights Treaty. This was in direct contrast to other women's groups such as the National Union of Societies for Equal Citizenship, which supported protectionist legislation that applied only to women such as an 'Endowment of Motherhood' that was intended to be paid to women in order to ensure their financial independence. Much of its work was done through its journal, Time and Tide. From 1933, along with the Open Door Council, it spearheaded the movement for the right of married women to work. It was responsible for establishing the Income Tax Reform Council and in 1938, the Married Women's Association. During the Second World War, they campaigned on issues such as female volunteers in the Civil Defence Services receiving two-thirds the man's pay and compensation rate provided for by the Personal Injuries (Emergency Provisions) Act of 1939 by traditional constitutional methods: deputations to the appropriate government ministers, public rallies and letters to major newspapers. They were also closely involved in the Equal Compensation Campaign from 1941 to 1943 and subsequently had representatives beside the Open Door Council and the Fawcett Society on the committee of the Equal Pay Campaign from 1944 to ensure equal pay in the Civil Service. They continued to have a significant political influence after the war, taking part in the protest to have the Matrimonial Proceedings and Property Act changed to give married women more financial protection. From 1967, they played an active part in the co-ordination of other women's groups on a number of issues through that decade and into the next. However, later in the 1970s the group declined through its failure to recruit younger women and went into abeyance in 1980, finally dissolving itself in 1983. Throughout its existence the Six Point Group stressed its feminism and its belief in practical politics. It always emphasized its non-party stance, although at one stage members were pleased to be thought as the left-wing feminist group. Such women as Elizabeth Robins, Winifred Holtby, Dorothy Evans, Sybil Morrison, Dora Russell, Monica Whateley and, for very many years, Hazel Hunkins-Hallinan, played active roles in the group.

Hazel Hunkins-Hallinan (1890-1982) was born in Colorado, in the United States, and brought up in Montana. She was well educated and became a chemist, but found her career both as an academic and as a practising chemist thwarted by discrimination because of her gender. Through a friendship with Anna Louise Rowe, Hunkins-Hallinan became a member of the American National Woman's Party (NWP) and an active campaigner for women's suffrage in America - in 1917 going to jail for her role as a protester. After meeting Charles Thomas Hallinan, a pacifist, she travelled to England and lived with Hallinan in London, having four children before they married at the end of the 1920s. In 1922 she joined the Six Point Group in which she became an active member, and the Married Women's Association. She also worked with the Abortion Law Reform Association from the end of the 1960s. Hallinan died at the age of 91 in London, she was buried in Montana with her parents and her husband.

See Red Women's Workshop

Status of Women Committee

Throughout the 1920s and the early part of the 1930s, international women's organisations were engaged in efforts to have an international equal rights treaty passed by the League of Nations. Although this was never passed before the League s Council, four governments signed a version of the accord at the Pan-American conference of 1933. The rest of the conference participants, however, were unable to do so and merely adopted a resolution requesting that governments implement equality so far as the peculiar circumstances of each country will conveniently permit'. The following year the Pan-American Commission of Women, which was an official body of the Pan American Union, persuaded ten Latin American members of the League's Council to request that the whole issue of women's status be examined. In response, the Council requested fifteen international women's organisations to present statements on the nationality and status of women. They reported back on contemporary restrictive legislation being passed that curtailed women's economic and social liberties in Europe. The evidence presented led the League in 1935 to invite governments to present them with further information on this question within their own borders. The League of Nations' Status of Women Committee was established in 1935 to examine this at the same time as an inquiry was conducted by the International Labour Organisation to examine equality under contemporary labour laws.

The British government undertook research in order to present the necessary findings to the League. However, the National Council of Women felt it necessary to set up an independent group to study and supplement these reports. Consequently, the Committee on the Status of Women was established. Its immediate was to co-ordinate the responses of women's groups to the request for information and forward them through the International Council of Women. However, this work came to a halt with the outbreak of the Second World War. When its activities resumed in 1945, the League of Nations had been dissolved and their task had changed dramatically. Now, under the first post-war chairperson, Thelma Cazalet-Keir, the organisation was not involved in reporting to the United Nations but acted as a national body for co-ordinating the work of organisations campaigning for women's rights. In this period, it monitored contemporary legislation for examples of discrimination and acted as a pressure group on the government, other law-makers, employers, those in education and the media. It was constituted by representatives of British women's institutions and groups which were affiliated to the Committee included the Association of Assistant Masters and Mistresses, the Commonwealth Centres League, the League of Jewish Women, the Married Women's Association, the St Joan's Alliance, the Six Point Group, the Suffragette Fellowship, the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, the Josephine Butler Society, the United Kingdom Federation of Business and Professional Women, and the Women's Liberal Federation amongst others. Additionally, individuals and co-opted specialists in their fields also belonged to what remained a non-party organisation throughout its existence. From the end of the Second World War, the group continued to hold regular meetings and annual conferences. In 1968, they organised the jubilee of Votes for Women; in 1972, their annual conference revolved around women and property rights. In 1974, sex discrimination in the EEC was the central topic while in 1975 the conference discussed the future of women. They aimed for equality for women in all spheres of life. This aim centred around eight principles: equal pay for work of equal value; equal educational facilities; equal provision of training; equal opportunities in employment; equality on social security; equality in taxation; equal social standards and equal standards in marriage. However by the late 1970s, the number of groups that continued to subscribe dropped back as some were dissolved and others failed to renew their membership. In 1978, their activities had fallen way to such an extent that organisers of the official celebrations for fifty years of suffrage initially omitted to include them in the events. By 1980, members themselves were questioning the continued existence of the group since most of their demands for legal equality had been achieved and constituent groups were now referring few matters to them. Consequently, the group was officially wound up in January 1985, when the balance of their funds was transferred to the accounts of the Society for Promoting the Training of Women.

Wildcat Cards

Wildcat Cards (1988-1994) was founded in Sep 1988 by the Sheffield-based cartoonist and graphic designer Fi Frances in order to make modern women's art more accessible to the public through the medium of high quality cards produced by women artists to promote images and messages by women for women. It produced greetings cards, postcards and posters designed by women artists and actively sought input from women in a wide range of different life situations (from different classes, ethnic backgrounds, sexualities, abilities, ages and educational and political backgrounds). Some designs were produced as support cards for women's organisations and campaigns. Fi Frances once said 'Paintings depict an aspect of women's experience not normally seen in our world of misleading gloss.' In 1989, the Wildcat Cards Collective was formed, initially in an advisory capacity but with a view to establishing the business collectively in the long term. In 1990, Wildcat Cards was an established collective of four women, namely, Fi Frances, Maya Chowdhry, Mal Finch and Judith Dixon. The Collective increased to seven members by 1991 to include Fi Frances, Maya Chowdhry, Mal Finch, Rose Tanner, Sarah Broughton, Jacquie Burgess and Charlotte [?]. Wildcat Cards remained based in Sheffield and the majority of its business was through mail order. Although the Collective was dissolved in 1992, the business continued to operate until 1994 during which two attempts were made to sell the Collective to women. Fi Frances died in Nov 2001. [Note: a 'Wildcat Card' company was established in 2002 based in Berkshire; this had no link to the feminist card company]

Fi Frances (1940-2001) was born in 1940 to a family of drawing room watercolourists and schoolroom calligraphers. She was a graphic designer and cartoonist living in Sheffield, and worked as a graphic technician at Sheffield City Polytechnic and Sheffield Women's Printing Coop. In 1984 she became self employed. Fi and Caroline Irving formed Hoodwink to promote their skills as women cartoonist, and in 1987 came together as a group with two other women cartoonist, Christine Smith and Debjani Chatterjee to form Graphic Equalizers. In Sep 1988, Fi started the Wildcat Cards project to relate her skills in graphics and cartooning to the politics of feminist and other radical campaigns she was involved in. She operated Wildcat Cards as a Collective until 1992, but the business continued operating until 1994. She became involved with creating an arts policy with the Arts Council and Age Concern on which she wrote an article entitled, Increasing Visibility in the summer of 1999 for the Foundation of Community Dance. Fi Frances died in Nov 2001.

Wives' Fellowship

The Wives' Fellowship (1916-fl 2008) is a Christian women's group founded in 1916 within the Church of England, but later was opened to members of all Christian denominations. It aims to bring together married women with a common interest in upholding Christian ideals in marriage, motherhood and community service. It functions as a network of local groups around the UK with a central administrative body run by volunteers. Membership has always been by invitation, with meetings held in members' homes. Annual Days (the yearly celebration of the founding of the Fellowship) and National Conferences are held in different locations around the UK. The group was originally called the Young Wives' Fellowship and aimed to provide companionship to young married women whose husbands were fighting overseas during the First World War. It was initially a sub-committee to the Mothers' Union, with strong links to the Girls' Diocesan Association. In 1921 it became independent under the title The Wives' Fellowship. It remained affiliated to the Mothers' Union until 1937. Most branches at that time were in the dioceses of the Church of England. During the 1920s groups were established in India and Sri Lanka (Ceylon) and, very briefly, in Cairo, Nairobi and Jakarta (Batavia). The Indian groups ceased after Indian independence and the Ceylon groups stopped in 1973. The central administrative body produces magazines, hosts events around the country, and organises the Annual General Meeting. It has always been active in charitable work. The main charities that have been supported are: the Josephine Butler house in Liverpool (funding the training of female social workers) 1921-1974; the St Michael and All Angels Fellowship, 1943-1976; the St Christopher's Hospice (for the terminally ill), 1975-onwards. It also had a 60-year affiliation with the National Council of Women. The Senior Wives' Fellowship was established in 1934 for members over the age of 40. The Wives' Fellowship and the Senior Wives' Fellowship merged on 11 Mar 2004. The organisation was still active in 2008.

Women's Group on Problems Arising from Evacuation Women's Group on Public Welfare Women's Forum

The Women's Forum grew out of organisations that came into existence during the Second World War. In 1939, the refugee situation prompted the National Council of Social Service to call a conference of concerned organisations. The group which emerged from this event was the Women's Group on Problems Arising from Evacuation, with Margaret Bondfield as Chairperson. The National Council of Social Service would continue to provide the new organisation with secretariat and accommodation throughout its existence. The following year the group changed its name to the Women's Group on Public Welfare in order to reflect its widened scope of interest into all aspects of the welfare of women and children. It was constituted solely by representatives all the major women's and female-voluntary organisations including the National Union of Townswomen's Guilds and the National Federation of Women's Institutes and action could only be undertaken by the constituent groups themselves. Strong links were formed with foreign, especially Eastern-European, organisations while the main work of the group was undertaken by subcommittees. During the war, these included those on education and leisure, the under-fives, hygiene, working class credit, the organisation of women's clubs, women's work in the regions, conditions on air-raid shelters, planning, welfare in the Women's services, fuel economy (later superseded by the Women's advisory Council on Solid Fuel), food education, and a sub-committee to examine the Beveridge Report. After the war, the focus of the work changed as other sub-committees were formed: one related to social insurance, another on the shortage of craft and cookery teachers, a committee on home making, clean food, and in the Sixties, a committee on public questions. Working groups were also set up to deal with the social aspects of loneliness, advertisements, education for girls as well as the situation of homeless families.

During the war, this work at the national level was complimented by the activities of purely local groups and the local branches of organisations. At the time, these were co-ordinated by regional Group Action Councils established by the Federation of Soroptimist Clubs in 1942. These local forums had to be linked to the national efforts, however, and the Women's Group on Public Welfare provided the gateway between individual Group Action Councils as well as between local groups and national organisations. When the Group Action Councils became Standing Conferences of Women's Organisations, the WGPW both held joint biannual conferences with them and sent representatives to sit with them on the SCWO advisory committee.

In the post-war period, the home making committee set up a sub-committee of scientific home management; in 1951 the committee and sub-committee merged to become the Council of Scientific Management in the Home (COSMITH). However, the major achievement of the group in the post-war period, however, was the publication of the report 'The Neglected Child and His Family' in 1946, which led to the establishment of a new child welfare service through the Children Act of 1948. By 1960, 850 clubs totalling 27,500 members had been set up through its efforts. These activities continued until 1975 when the National Council of Social Service was restructured in the wake of 1970's Social Services Act which had resulted in increasing confusion between the welfare activities of statutory and voluntary bodies. At this point the Women's Group on Public Welfare changed its name to The Women's Forum. When the NCSS became the National Council of Voluntary Organisations in 1980, it decided to end its secretarial and financial support of the Women's Forum. It was decided that the organisation could not continue to function and the group was wound up at the Annual General Meeting that took place in December of that year.

Women's Media Action Group
Alliance for Fair Images and Representation in the Media
Women's Monitoring Network

Women's Publicity Planning Association

The Women's Publicity Planning Association (WPPA) (1939-1946) was formed after a meeting of representatives from existing women's organisations in Dec 1939 led by Margery Corbett-Ashby and Rebecca Sieff. Its aim was to increase the flow of information and views between women's groups both nationally and internationally. A planning committee chaired by Corbett-Ashby commissioned articles by and about women which were sent to the Ministry of Information for publication in government news sheets. However, when, in 1940, this proved unsatisfactory, the group took over the newspaper of the International Alliance of Women for Suffrage and Equal Citizenship, the International Women's News (which had ceased running due to war conditions).

The aim was to 'enable women to make their work known to others as an encouragement and rouse all women to a sense of individual and collective responsibility in the planning of a new world.' For the purposes of publication, the WPPA was incorporated as a company in Jul 1940 and Seiff was appointed both Chair of the company and of the Executive Committee at this time. Throughout the war, the WPPA acted as an umbrella group and mouthpiece for the whole range of wartime women's issues. In the early years the group supported new types of work which women were undertaking or could aspire to, but at the same time they raised issues concerned with evacuation problems, and from 1941 the newspaper's 'After the war' column raised reconstruction topics such as education and childcare. Other activities included involvement in the campaign for Equal Compensation for War Injuries in 1941 and in the Equal Citizenship Campaign Committee. In Jan 1942 a sub-committee was established after a meeting with Dr Edith Summerskill which would later become the independent Women for Westminster group Jun 1943. The group also commissioned and published Vera Douie's survey 'The Lesser Half'. On 31 Dec 1945 the assets and running of the International Women's News was handed back to the International Alliance of Women. After the war ended the WPPA was not actively involved in any further campaigns but was never formally wound up.

Women's Provisional Club

The first meeting of the Women's Provisional Club (1924-1984) took place at the Samson Clark Building, Mortimer Street, London, on 8 Feb 1924. Many of the founding members were business and professional women. The founder, Mrs Ethel Wood CBE (d 1970), was the Director of Samson Clark Co. from 1921-1928 and then Director and Chair of Super Garages Ltd. The firs Chair of the Club was Margaret Haig Thomas, Viscountess Rhondda (1883-1958), who was the owner-editor of the political magazine Time and Tide. Mrs Helen Archdale (1876-1949) was a journalist and militant suffragette. Dr Winifred Cullis (1875-1956) became Professor Emeritus of Physiology at the Royal Free Hospital, University of London from 1903. She was the founder of the British Federation of University Women in 1907.

Although, individually, these women wanted to achieve equal status with their professional male counterparts, the WPC was not overtly a political group. The objectives of the Club were to:

a) encourage and foster high ethical standards in business and professions.

b) encourage and foster the 'ideal of service' as the basis for enterprise.

c) quicken an interest in public welfare and to co-operate with others in civic, social and industrial developments.

Any business or professional women of British nationality could be members. There was also honorary membership status. The Club arranged fortnightly meetings, with a speaker, at various restaurants in London. These were initially luncheon gatherings and then became dinner functions. An Annual General Meeting was held in the early spring. The Executive Committee met at least four or five times a year. Summer outings and Christmas parties were also arranged.

The Constitution was heavily based on the by-laws of the Rotary International, a civilian service club founded in 1905. The original plan was that the WPC would amalgamate with the Rotary International and so the reason for the word 'Provisional' in the title. However, such an aim would mean changing the Rotarian's constitution because they were a male-only group. This plan was abandoned in 1930 after five years of negotiations, and the Club decided to continue as they were.

Some members of the WPC were involved with other groups which promoted women's interests. For example, Miss Kathleen Mary Halpin (1903-1999) (7KAH) was one of the founders of the Soroptimist Housing Trust, involved with the Business & Professional Women's Club Ltd., and a member of the Sub-Committee of the Fawcett Society (2LSW/JC), which was concerned with women's suffrage, amongst other matters. In 1935, Caroline Harriet Haslett (1895-1957), an electrical engineer and founder of the Women's Engineering Society in 1919, became the first President of the British Federation of Business & Professional Women, an organisation which campaigned for women's equality. In the following year, she advocated that the WPC should merge with this Federation and, hopefully, its international equivalent. The members of the WPC voted against this move at the AGM of 1937.

After this, the WPC continued as a social club until the 1980s, attracting many eminent women. Amongst their members was the architect, Gertrude Leverkus (1899-1976) (7GLE); Miss Sybil Campbell, magistrate and fundraiser in 1922 for converting Crosby Hall in Chelsea into an international centre for postgraduate students; and Dame Adeline Genée (d. 1970), one of the founders of modern British ballet.

At the AGM of Apr 1980 a special resolution was passed stating that the Club would be ceasing to operate through its normal constitutional procedures. The Club met occasionally until its last meeting in Mar 1984.

Women's Research and Resources Centre , London

Women and Socialism Conferences

The second wave of the feminist movement, or the Women's Liberation Movement, began in the 1960s. It moved beyond the action for social and economic equality with men that earlier liberal activists had focused on to undertake the theoretical study of social relationships and ways in which they created the oppression of women. Its emergence occurred at the same time as that of anti-imperialist, left-leaning political movements in the United States and Great Britain and was influenced by them. Large numbers of those involved in the women s liberation movement began to make a connection between working class oppression and women's oppression, resulting in the formation of socialist or Marxist feminism that aimed at a general social transformation which would also encompass a radical change in women's status.

The first Women's Liberation conference was held in 1970, at Ruskin College, Oxford and from it emerged four demands: equal pay, equal education and job opportunities, free contraception and abortion on demand and free 24hr nurseries. They did not, however, emphasis the end of capitalism as a means of achieving their objectives. Soon, however, socialist feminists began to predominate in the British Women's Liberation Movement, influenced by a strong British socialist tradition and recent events such as the strike at the Ford car factory in Dagenham by female workers campaigning for equality with male colleagues. Their analysis of women's situation as a combination of male domination and class exploitation came to dominate the movement in the early part of the decade and led many to call for the end of the conventional family as a key step towards women's liberation within communism.

Activists in both the feminist and the socialist movements shared aspects of their working methods . Both sought to develop strategy through both local groups and national conferences and carried out their analysis of the family and women's role in those contexts. In 1969 the Women's Liberation Workshop begun in London, publishing the SHREW newsletter. This was followed the next year by the first National Women's Liberation Conference in Oxford. In 1972 National Women's Liberation Conferences were held in London and Manchester, with one in Bristol the following year. It was largely from these events that future agendas for discussion of women and their roles evolved. Subsequently, the Conference on the Family took place at the Leeds Polytechnical University on the 12th and 13th May 1973. It included sessions on the History of the Family including work on the family in the United Kingdom in the nineteenth century, the Family under Capitalism and the Family in the Post-Capitalist Society. Papers were read which also examined the socialist position on abortion and homosexuality in a capitalist society from a Marxist perspective. Another, more feminist-centred event took place in London that same year. The second conference on Women's Liberation and Socialism was held at the Conway Hall on the 22nd-23rd September. It was intended as a follow-up to the first conference that had been held in Birmingham at the request of a local political study group holding on-going discussions of the issue. Both were intended for feminists of a Marxist orientation within the movement and consisted of three workshops dealing with different subject areas raised at the Birmingham event. Areas treated were the history and development of the Women's Liberation Movement and its future organisational development. A follow up workshop to deal with the issues raised was held the following November.

Blackfriars Settlement x Women's University Settlement

In the early part of the 1880's, poverty in London had risen to endemic proportions and public concern had become widespread. In 1883 the University 'Settlement' movement began, prompted by the Rev Samuel Barnett's call for the university-educated young to 'settle' in area of the worst poverty. Barnett insisted they follow in the line of 'visiting' societies run by middle class women in the previous decades which had done much to raise the issue of the practices in workhouses in order to become familiar with the conditions of the working classed since only then could they gain a better appreciation of their needs. Alice Gruner began lecturing to the female students of the new women's colleges at Oxford and Cambridge on these issues along with Henrietta Barnett and the student bodies of Newnham and Girton established a joint committee. The organisation's aim was to 'promote the welfare of the people of the poorer districts of London and especially of the Women and Children, devise and promote schemes which tend to elevate them physically, intellectually and morally, and give them additional opportunities for education and recreation'. Other women's colleges at Oxford rapidly became involved with this and, in 1887, the first branch of the Women's University Settlement was opened in Nelson Square in Southwark.

The Executive Committee of the Settlement consisted of six members from Girton, Newnham, Lady Margaret Hall and Dr Octavia Hill, the housing and health reformer. They initially organised a Saturday Morning Schools for local children where they were taught simple games then organised a series of evening clubs for the young in the 1890s to extend general access to education. In 1891, a Junior Girls' Club was set up under the group's auspices and a Junior Club for school leavers followed soon after. In 1893, this was expanded into a series of evening classes known as the Acland Mixed Club for male and female school leavers. The educational focus also encompassed taking on the first students of its own. In 1896 a Joint Committee for Lectures was set up with the National Union of Women Workers and the Charity Organisation Society to give lectures on charity and social work influenced by the experiences of their workforce. This led in 1890 to an organised 1-year program of courses and practical work that evolved, under the direction of the COS, into the London School of Sociology at the London School of Economics in 1903. Female students training in social work took up residence to gather practical experience while the Pfeiffer Scholar was established to help students to study in this area of work.

In the 1890s, the Settlement was also concerned with health in the area. In collaboration with several nursing associations, the WUS established a home for district nurses in the area and took over responsibility for the Invalid Children's Aid Association. This increased activity made it necessary to expand their premises to the next house at 46 Nelson Square as the first classes and employment register for disabled children were opened. Activity in this area also expanded when the St Crispin's Workshop opened, specialising in boot-making by disabled children in 1897. Employment services became an increasingly important issue as time went on: in 1900 a Registry and Apprenticeship Scheme was established which was broadened three years later when this became a registry for work for all school leavers. What they had achieved was showcased in an exhibition by what had become the Apprenticeship and Skilled Employment Association in 1910. However, health remained a major area of work for them and in 1907 and Infant Welfare unit was set up in conjunction with the Borough Council and Health Society. During the First World War, child health remained an important focus despite staffing problems as war work took up personnel and in 1918 the Settlement opened a Baby Clinic to help mothers. They also began their association with the children's Country Holidays Foundation soon after. However, at the end of the war, the university settlement suffered financial difficulties. St Crispins closed and 20,21 and 22 Nelson Square were sold off soon after being bought. Nonetheless, they were still able to start socially focused projects such as a Girl Guides Company. In 1924 a Workers Sub-committee was established followed by a nursery school and a Mother's Club section in the Acland Club in 1927; a Women's Section was also created the following year. 1928 also saw the beginning of the Poor Man's Lawyer that later became the Legal Aid Association. The work with children also continued as a nursery school council was set up in 1929.

After 1929, the Depression began to affect the work and direction of the Settlement. The following year, the Acland and the St Mary Clubs merged. Two years later a club was opened for unemployed men followed by one for unemployed women the following year. In 1933 an Infant Welfare Project was established. In 1935 the hospital Saving scheme was set up. The Settlement were able to buy and equip a new club house at 27 Nelson Square in 1936 but by 1938 it was necessary for Dr Maude Royden to launch an appeal through the BBC. This allowed the group to run a Youth Welfare Centre and a Citizen's Advice Bureau that ran for six years. War interrupted their work once more that year and affected the Settlement profoundly. In 1941 they were one of the organisations that administered the evacuation of their area and they also established canteens for local workers during the Blitz. The nursery was evacuated to Surrey although the Baby Centre continued. However, on the 9th September, large amounts of damage were suffered when Nelson Square was bombed. Major restructuring of the organisation took place after the Second World War. In 1947 the Executive Committee became a Council of twenty-two that was elected at the AGM and contained representatives of local organisations. The Clubs that continued from the pre-war period were given their own boards of management in 1952. With the beginning of the Welfare state, the Settlement's role became increasingly social with a Young Mother's Club, a Young Dad's Group and Youth Clubs all being opened between 1950 and 1956. In 1958 the settlement undertook two major surveys: one on the aftercare of ex-prisoners and another on the social conditions in Southwark. The following year another major initiative working with the mentally handicapped began with the opening of the West and the Lucky Black Cat Clubs. However, in the new post-war world, many of the older activities were either curtailed or brought to an end: for instance the Acland and St Mary's Clubs finally closed their doors.

In 1961, the Women's University Settlement was renamed the Blackfriars Settlement and another new constitution was put in place to reflect the increasing number of male staff and strengthened links to the local community. Its new aims were, 'to promote the welfare of individual persons, families and communities in London and elsewhere by all practical means, an in particular by the provision and maintenance of a residential or other centre or centres in Southwark or elsewhere and the fostering of community activities'. Links remained with universities through resident students undertaking practical training there during their courses. The focus of the organisation emerged in the new sub-groups: in 1962 the Crusoe Club for the blind was opened, followed by the Blackfriars Family Councillors Project (BFCP) in 1965. Also in 1965, another major re-organisation of the group took place. The projects, which by this time had been organised as two units grouped around preventative and caring work, were each given their own unit committees to bring together Council members, senior staff and representative for volunteers to take policy decisions which were then put to the Council. In 1968 these unit committees were once more replaced by six project committees and the overall structure of the Blackfriars Settlement was changed to include a co-ordination committee of officers, project committees chairpersons and senior staff to carry out policy. From 1965 to 1968 also took part in the Experimental Federation of South London Settlements. However, their financial problems continued and it was necessary to curtail their work in 1967. Despite this, by 1969 they were able to open the Blackfriars Youth Centre at the St Alphege's hall in Rushworth St. The work of the Blackfriars Settlement continues to date in the area of North Southwark and Waterloo.

Association of Post Office Women Clerks

The Association of Post Office Women Clerks (1903-c 1913) was founded as women became employed in this sector. Women were first employed in the British Civil Service in Feb 1870, after the responsibility for Britain's telegraph service came under the remit of the Controller of the Post Office under the Telegraph Act of 1869. At the end of the nineteenth century, there was great opposition to women's employment amongst male employees, in contrast to employers' acceptance of a new workforce who worked for lower wages and was less inclined to industrial agitation. This hostility also affected the male-dominated trade unions of the period, especially those concerned with the Civil Service. This meant that women civil servants of the time continued to occupy separate and lower grades than those of men, and a marriage bar prevented them continuing to work after they became wives. It was not until the turn of the century that female trade union agitation for equal pay and conditions with the male workforce began. Women workers continued to be employed in larger numbers by the Post Office than in other departments. However, conditions continued to be poor. The Association of Post Office Women Clerks was formed in 1903 as a result of a dispute which began in 1897 when women's starting pay and annual increments were suddenly further reduced. By 1904 the union had over 1,300 members. In 1913 the organisation joined the Federation of Women Clerks to further these aims. In 1916 they merged with the Civil Service Typists Association to become the Federation of Women Civil Servants. This represented all clerical women in the Civil Service with the exception of Writing Assistants, had the objective of securing equal pay with male employees and co-operated with male trade unions to attain this end. The Association, along with most of the civil service trades unions were involved in efforts to introduce arbitration and militated for what would become Whitley Councils. After the end of the First World War such action helped bring about a major restructuring of the service. Grades that had been unique to each of the departments were now merged across the entire service to form four basic bands. When women's posts were finally assimilated into the general grading system in 1920, the group found itself weakened as members left for larger mixed unions. As a result of this, the union amalgamated with the Association of Women Clerks and Secretaries in 1932 and continued as the National Association of Women Civil Servants. The organisation was affiliated to the Federation of Women Civil Servants, and later merged with the National Association of Women Civil Servants.

Association of Women Clerks and Secretaries

Association of Women Clerks and Secretaries (1903-c 1921) was founded in 1903 as women became employed in this sector. At the end of the nineteenth century, there was great opposition to women's employment amongst male employees, in contrast to employers' acceptance of a new workforce who worked for lower wages and was less inclined to industrial agitation. This hostility also affected the male-dominated trades unions of the period, especially those concerned with the Civil Service. This meant that women civil servants of the time continued to occupy separate and lower grades than those of men, and a marriage bar prevented them continuing to work after they became wives. It was not until the turn of the century that female trade union agitation for equal pay and conditions with the male workforce began. The Association of Shorthand Writers was established in 1903 and was subsequently renamed the Association of Women Clerks and Secretaries. Unlike the Federation of Women Civil Servants at this stage, which represented only permanent and established female public servants, the Association dealt with staff that had been recruited on a temporary basis. The Association, along with most of the civil service trades unions, were involved in efforts to introduce arbitration and militated for what would become Whitley Councils. After the end of the First World War such action helped bring about a major restructuring of the service. Grades that had been unique to each of the departments were now merged across the entire service to form four basic bands. This resulted in the merger of unions that had previously been structured around specific departments. When women were finally assimilated into the general grading system in 1920 as part of the restructuring, the Association found itself weakened as members left for larger mixed unions that were better represented on the Whitley Councils and this was one of the reason why, in 1921, it joined with several mixed trades unions, as well as the Civil Service Typists Association to form the Civil Service Clerical Association. However, membership later became a problem when the Federation of Women Civil Servants changed its rules to allow temporary workers to join. This was exacerbated in 1930 when many of traditionally temporary contracts were made permanent and abortive moves were made to amalgamate with the National Union of Clerks. Later, in 1932 it went on to merge with the Federation to create the National Association of Women Civil servants. In Mar 1940, the Association finally joined the National Union of Clerks and Administrative Workers under the new title of The Clerical and Administrative Workers Union.

British Federation of Business and Professional Women

The British Federation of Business and Professional Women (1933-1969) was formed as the British Federation of Business and Professional Women Clubs in 1933 through the efforts of the Women's Advertising Club of London and the Women's Engineering Society. However, a meeting was called by the International Federation of Business and Professional Women in Jan 1935 to discuss the Federation's future status. It was decided to disband the group and set up an ad-hoc committee to draft a constitution for a new British Federation of Business and Professional Women (BFBPW) which was established a few months later. The object of the new Federation was to promote and safeguard the interests of business and professional women, to establish closer co-operation between them, to secure affective and consistent co-ordination of action on matters affecting their mutual interests and also to promote their professional standards and training. In addition to the core Executive committee and subcommittees, the group also had a Bridge Committee established to co-ordinate the relationships between the British and International Federations and the separate British Federation of Business and Professional Women's Clubs. The BFBPW contributed to discussions on women's status in the pre-war period, but its most intense period of activity occurred during the Second World War. When in Feb 1940 it became clear that female workers were not being employed in areas where labour shortages were evident, the group approached several women MP's to engage the government on this matter. One month later, the Woman Power Committee was established as a result of talks between Lady Astor and Caroline Haslett, Chair of the BFBPW, to protect the interests of British women during the war. Subsequently, the group became involved in the issues of unequal compensation payments for men and women offered by 1941's Personal Injuries (Civilians) Scheme to those rendered unable to work. This scheme was opposed by women's organisations and action was jointly co-ordinated by the National Association of Women Civil Servants and the British Federation of Business and Professional Women. A committee was instituted, firstly on an ad-hoc and then a permanent basis, with representatives from the Women Power Committee, The National Association of Women Civil Servants, the British Federation of Business and Professional Women, the National Council of Women, the Women's Publicity Planning Association and later the Women's Freedom League. A select committee was subsequently instituted which overturned the existing legislation and resulted in equal compensation rates being paid in 1943. With this achieved, attention was extending the work to equal pay more generally and the Federation took a leading part in the Equal Pay Campaign and sent representatives to sit on both the central and the advisory committee of that organisation. After the Second World War, the federation had an important role in the work of the International Federation of Business & Professional Women. It had equal representation at the international conferences with the National Federation of Business & Professional Women's Clubs as well as contributing to the work of the United Nations. It continued its campaign for equal pay for civil servants and teachers throughout the Fifties. When this objective was achieved, it turned its attention to the more general issue of the status of women. However, financial difficulties had led a number of groups to leave the Federation in 1956 that in turn led the parent group itself to feel new financial pressures. This eventually led to its dissolution in 1969.

Council of Women Civil Servants

The Council of Women Civil Servants (1920-1958) was founded in 1920, after a major reorganisation of the Civil Service took place. Grades that had been structured around each department were now merged across the entire service to form four basic bands. Additionally, efforts to introduce arbitration and militated for what would become Whitley Councils for the negotiation of pay and conditions had taken place in which most of the women's civil service trades unions had been involved. However, despite the statement of the Sex Disqualification Act of 1920 that 'women should have equal opportunity with men in all branches of the Civil Service and Local Authorities', the report presented by the official Joint Reorganisation Committee maintained there should be a separate selection process for women which did not involve the traditional examination, lower wages for women working in the same grades as men and the bar against married women should remain. In this situation, the Council of Women Civil Servants was established in 1920. Their purpose was, unlike other female trades unions, to represent all women in the administrative, professional and executive grades of the Civil Service and achieve equality of opportunity for them throughout the sector. In the 1920s and 1930s they were closely involved with the campaign for equal pay and consequently had close links with the London and National Society for Women's Service. In the early thirties they were responsible for a number of public rallies and meetings on the issue as well as presenting evidence to the Royal Commission on the Civil Service in 1929-1931. In addition, they took part in action to open the diplomatic service to women candidates and supported the introduction of family allowances. After the Second World War they continued their activities around equal pay and the marriage bar and affiliated to the British Federation of Business and Professional Women. The group was dissolved in Dec 1958 after equal pay and conditions were put in place throughout the Civil service. The organisations assets were passed to the Fawcett Society.

Watson , Edith M , fl 1915-1945 , feminist

Affichage de 15888 résultats

Trouver les résultats avec :

Limiter les résultats à :

Filtrer les résultats par :

Trouvez les résultats où :

Affiner les résultats par :

Type d'entité

Affichage de 15888 résultats

Options de recherche avancée

Trouver les résultats avec :

Limiter les résultats à :

Filtrer les résultats par :

Trouvez les résultats où :