Robert Mylne (1734-1811) was born in Edinburgh and studied as an architect and engineer in Paris and Rome. His work includes the building of Blackfriars Bridge and the Stationers' Hall in London, St Cecila's Hall in Edinburgh, and the village and castle of Inveray. He was the architect of the new River Company until 1810, when his son William Chadwell Mylne took over the post, and was involved in the construction of several canals in England. He is buried in St Paul's Cathedral, London.
Thomas Herbert Lewin was born in London on 1 Apr 1839, and was educated at Littlehampton and Addiscombe Military College. In 1857, Lewin traveled to India as a lieutenant and was involved in several campaigns to put down the Indian Mutiny. He became the District Superintendent in Police at Rampur Bandleah, 1861-1864, later taking up the same post at Noacolly, South Bengal and Chittagong, 1864-1866. In March 1866, he was promoted to Captain, and appointed first as Temporary Superintendent and later permanent Deputy Commissioner and Political Agent for the unregulated Chittagong Hill Tracts - a post that he held until 1875. In 1874, Lewin returned to England due to ill health, was made an honorary Lieutenant Colonel and received a Colonel's pension. He returned to India in 1875 to take up the post of Deputy Commissioner of Cooch Behar, and later became Deputy Commissioner of Darjeeling, where he remained until his retirement in 1879. In 1885, Thomas Herbert bought Parkhurst, a house in Abinger, near Dorking, Surrey where he lived until his death in 1916. Lewin was the author of several works on India and Indian languages.
Francis Wormald was Professor of Palaeography in the University of London from 1949-1960, and Director of the Institute of Historical Research from 1960-1967. The range of documents in this collection reflects the fact that they were used as a palaeography teaching tool, giving examples of types of handwriting.
Reginald Stephen Stacey was born in London in 1905. He was educated at Haberdashers' Aske's School, and later attended Trinity College, Cambridge University, where he graduated in Physiology in 1927. After spending a year at the University of Vienna (1927), Stacey gained his Bachelor of Surgery (B.Chir) at St Thomas's Medical Hospital in 1930. He was appointed First Assistant to the Professor of Medicine, St Thomas's from 1932 to 1935, when he became Professor of Pharmacology and Therapeutics at the Royal College of Medicine in Baghdad. Stacey was subsequently a Reader, 1948-1958, and a Professor, 1958-1970, of Pharmacology and Therapeutics at St Thomas's Hospital. In 1963 he was made the first holder of the Chair in Pharmacology and Therapeutics at the University of London, and from 1970 to his death in 1974 he worked at the Wellcome Research Laboratories in Beckenham.
Aubrey Toppin was born in Twickenham in 1881. He worked initially at the Science and Art Museum, Dublin, 1901-1906, until he gained the post of First Assistant to the Keeper of Irish Antiqities at the National Museum of Ireland, 1906. In 1907, he was promoted to the position of Assistant Keeper of the Art and Antiquities Division, a position which he held until his retirement in 1923.
Pistoia is a city in Tuscany, Italy. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, it was distinguished for its strong economic growth; as a consequence the city came to control a large surrounding territory. In the thirteenth century, Pistoia was caught up in the battles between the opposing powers of Florence and Lucca, suffering a long siege in 1306. In the mid-14th century, Pistoia entered the Fiorentine sphere of influence, having been seriously diminished both demographically and economically by disastrous plagues in 1348 and 1400.
Founded in 1892, the Union of Graduates in Music aimed to oppose the granting of spurious music degrees by 'Universities' which were not bona-fide. Its presidents included Sir Frederick Bridge (1844-1924), Sir Charles Parry (1848-1918), Sir Charles Stanford (1852-1924), Sir Edward Elgar (1857-1934) and Sir Donald Tovey (1875-1940). The Union was dissolved in 1972.
A sequentiary is a book, or portion, of a Gradual or Troper containing sequences (extended melodies) sung by a soloist between the Alleluia and the Gospel lesson at Mass.
The royal household originated as the sovereign's retinue, and had a purely domestic function until the 12th century, after which it became a mainspring of government. The government departments of the Treasury, the Exchequer and the common law courts all originated there.
No information was available at the time of compilation.
Papal letters were initially used in the early church as a method of introducing papal laws and edicts to the entire church. As their number grew during the middle ages, they divided into several types, including general letters (constitutions) which were understood to regulate ecclesiastical conditions of a general character judicially; and ordinances issued for individual cases (rescripts), which were issued at the petition of an individual and decided a lawsuit or granted a favour.
A patent for an invention is granted by government to the inventor, giving the inventor the right for a limited period to stop others from making, using or selling the invention without the permission of the inventor. Patents cover products or processes that possess or contain new functional or technical aspects.
Azov is a sea port and one of the oldest towns in the esturial region of the River Don, Russia. There is no confirmation that the Azoff and Don Gas Company ever came into being.
In the 13th century, under Henry III and Edward I, the Royal Wardrobe became a major financial institution. Used as a war treasury, it acted as paymaster to the major military expeditions commanded by the king. It subsequently declined in importance, being replaced by the Chamber. Separate from the King's Wardrobe was the Great Wardrobe, for army clothing and military stores, peripatetic until 1361 and then at Baynard castle, and the Privy Wardrobe, for bows, arrows, pikes, and other weapons, in the Tower of London.
No information available at present.
Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Marquis de Torcy (1665-1746) was a French diplomat and foreign minister who negotiated some of the most important treaties of Louis XIV's reign. As Minister of Foreign Affairs, Torcy drafted the famous manifesto in which the king called on the nation to make a supreme effort to win the War of the Spanish Succession, 1708. Torcy was also the guiding spirit at the innumerable conferences that resulted in the treaties of Utrecht (1713) and Rastatt (1714). He wrote Mémoirs pour servir à l'histoire des négotiations depuis le Traité de Riswick jusqu'à la Paix d'Utrecht (1756).
Douglas Cecil Collins received his PhD from the University of London in 1938 on The collection and dissemination of news during the time of Shakespeare, with particular reference to news pamphlets 1590-1610.
The Exchequer was responsible for receiving and dispersing the public revenue. The lower Exchequer, or receipt, closely connected with the permanent Treasury, was an office for the receipt and payment of money. The upper Exchequer was a court sitting twice a year to regulate accounts.
For a reference to Carpenter as messenger in 1577, see Cal.S.P.Dom. 1547-1580, 569.
Robert Walpole's new position as Prime Minister was strengthened by his handling of a Jacobite conspiracy (known as the Atterbury plot after one of the main protagonists) uncovered in April 1722 and intended to take control of the government.
John Wilkes (1727-1797) was a politician and journalist who bought a seat in parliament in 1757. His outspoken attacks on King George II and his ministers in his journal the North Briton led to his arrest for seditious libel. He eventually served 22 months in prison, and, though repeatedly elected to Parliament from Middlesex, was refused his seat by the King's party. Wilkes was also elected Sheriff (1771) and Mayor (1774) of London.
The Emancipation rebellion of Western Jamaica was the largest rebellion in the British West Indies, involving some 20,000 slaves and led by the Baptist preacher Sam Sharpe whose main plan was a 'General Strike' against slavery. This led to widespread arson and military attacks, which ended with the death of 201 rebels during fighting and the trial and conviction of 750 slaves and 14 free persons.
The Privy Council is descended from the Curia Regis, which was made up of the king's tenants in chief, household officials, and anyone else the king chose. This group performed all the functions of government. About the time of Edward I (reigned 1272-1307), the executive and advising duties of the Curia Regis came to be handled by a select group, the king's secret council, which later came to be called the Privy Council.
Melville was born in Scotland, 1723 and educated at Glasgow and Edinburgh universities. In 1744 he became an ensign in the Edinburgh Regiment where he steadily rose through the ranks and in 1751 obtained his own company in the regiment. In 1760, on the death of his current commander he was appointed Governor of Guadeloupe and from there in 1760 appointed Governor to the Ceded Islands (Grenada, the Grenadines, Dominica. St Vincent and Tobago). His interests as an antiquary motivated him to study numerous locations for historical military purposes and he was also as member of the Society of Arts. When he died, in 1809, he was the oldest General in the British Army.
A diurnal gives the divine office for the 7 day Hours of the Catholic Church - namely Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers and Compline.
Thomas Wakley (1795-1862) qualified as a doctor in 1817 and set up a practice in London. He was the founder of the medical journal The Lancet (1823), which he used to campaign for medical reforms such as a united profession of apothecaries, physicians, and surgeons and a new system of medical qualifications to improve standards. He was elected as the Radical MP for Finsbury in 1835 and remained in the House of Commons for the next 17 years, where he was a vigorous advocate of parliamentary reform. Wakley was largely responsible for setting up the Royal College of Surgeons (1843) and the General Council of Medical Education and Registration (1858).
Cyril Ernest Wright was born in 1907 and was educated at George Watson's College, Edinburgh. He received an MA in English Language and Literature with first class Honours in 1929 from Edinburgh University. At Clare College, Cambridge he received first class Honours in Archaeological and Anthropological Tripos in 1931 and in 1936 he was awarded a PhD. for his thesis on The Cultivation of Saga during the Dark Ages. His career was spent in the Department of Manuscripts at the British Museum where he became assistant keeper in 1933. After being seconded to the Telegraphic Censorship and Home Office during the War, Wright returned to the British Museum to take up the post of Deputy Keeper of manuscripts in 1955. He was Senior Deputy Keeper from 1961 to his retirement in 1972. Wright was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1941 and served on several of the Society's committees including the Croft Lyons Committee from 1957 until his death. He was a member of the British Records Association from 1940 to 1970. He contributed to 30 publications during his career on subjects such as Icelandic, Anglo-Saxon, and Middle English literature, on palaeography and on heraldry; and the history of collectors and libraries, from the dispersal of the monastic libraries to the collections of the eighteenth century. He died in 1980.
During the weekend of 10-12th April 1981 serious civil disorder occurred in the Brixton area of south London: 279 policemen were injured, 45 members of the public are known to have been injured and 28 buildings were damaged or destroyed by fire. As a result the Secretary of State for the Home Office appointed Lord Scarman to inquire urgently into the serious disorder in Brixton and to report with the power to make recommendations.
A Breviary is a book furnishing the regulations for the celebration of Mass or the canonical Office. It contains the Psalter, the Proper of the Season, Proper of the Saints, the Common, and certain special Offices.
Margaret Alford was a lecturer in Latin at the University of London. In 1890 she graduated from Girton College, Cambridge University, with a degree in Classics. Alford was a visiting lecturer at Girton College, 1891 to 1917 and Westfield College, London, 1894-1919. She was head of the Department of Latin at Bedford College, University of London, between 1904 and 1909.
Born in Ceylon in 1890, Eric John Dingwall was a graduate of Pembroke College, Cambridge. He joined the staff of the Cambridge University Library in 1915 as a volunteer and went on to become an assistant librarian, leaving in 1918. In his youth he developed an enduring interest in magic and was eventually elected to the Magic Circle. This informed his approach to the investigation of the physical phenomena of mediumship, his major contribution to the Society for Psychical Research which he joined in 1920. In 1921 he spent a year in the United States as Director of the Department of Physical Phenomena at the American Society for Psychical Research. He was then appointed research officer to the British Society in 1922. One facet of Dingwall's complex character was his interest in sexual deviation and peculiar sexual practices, an interest which annoyed some of his colleagues at the Society and led to the termination of his appointment in 1927. His failure to be elected to the Society Council in 1928 led to his excessive criticism of the Society's administration. Released from his responsibilities at the SPR he continued to publish books including "Ghosts and Spirits in the Ancient World" (1930), "The Girdle of Chastity" (1931) and "How to Use a Large Library" (1933). In 1932 he was awarded his DSc from University College London. During the Second World War he worked for the Ministry of Information and in "a department of the Foreign Office". After the war he became Honorary Assistant Keeper at the British Museum Library, later the British Library, where he became a recognised authority on historical erotica, as well as on magic and psychical research. He also continued to publish books including two collections of short biographies of strange characters, "Some Human Oddities" (1947) and "Very Peculiar People" (1950) and contributed to to a four volume treatise "Abnormal Hypnotic Phenomena: A survey of nineteenth century cases" (1967/68). Dingwall was married twice. His first wife Doris left him, his second wife was Dr Margaret Davies who died on Christmas Eve 1976. Dingwall spent his remaining years independently and alone until his death on 7 August 1986.
Augustus de Morgan was born at Madura, India in 1806. In February 1823 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1827. In 1828 he was appointed Professor of Mathematics at University College London. With a short break from 1831-1836, he retained this post until his retirement in 1861. He was married in 1837 to Sophia Elizabeth Frend. During his lifetime de Morgan wrote thousands of books and articles on mathematics, logic, philosophy and many other subjects, though his outstanding contributions were made in the field of logic. He died in 1877. His son, William Frend de Morgan, was born in London in 1839. He made his name initially in the arts and crafts movement, designing pottery tiles using medieval or art nouveau designs. Later he became a novelist with such success that he eventually abandoned his artistic career. Collections of de Morgan's designs are held in the Victoria and Albert Museum and the William Morris Gallery. He died in 1917.
Ellen Lawless [Nelly] Robinson (nee Ternan) (1839-1914), actress, was born on 3 March 1839 at 11 Upper Clarence Place, Maidstone Road, Rochester, Kent, the third of four children of the actors Thomas Lawless Ternan (1790-1846) and his wife, Frances Eleanor, née Jarman (1802-1873). Ellen had two elder sisters, Frances Eleanor and Maria Susanna, and a younger brother who died in infancy. All three sisters entered the acting profession early. After the early death of their father in 1846 they were obliged to earn their living, touring the north of England, Ireland, and Scotland with their mother. Nelly's first adult engagement was in a burlesque at the Haymarket in 1857, and it was after this that she was engaged by Charles Dickens, with her mother and Maria, to perform with his amateur company in The Frozen Deep in Manchester. It was during this theatrical engagement that Ellen began a relationship with Dickens which was to continue until his death in 1870. Dickens left Nelly £1000 in his will and set up a private trust fund which freed her from the necessity of working again after his death in 1870. She travelled abroad, then on 31 January 1876, in the parish church at Kensington, she married a clergyman twelve years her junior, George Wharton Robinson (1850-1910). She helped her husband to run a boys' school in Margate, and gave birth to a son and a daughter. Her last years were spent at Southsea, where she was reunited with her sisters. She died from cancer at 18 Guion Road, Fulham, London, on 25 April 1914 and was buried in the Highland Road cemetery, Southsea, in her husband's grave. Frances Eleanor Trollope (1835-1913), was born in August 1835 on a paddle-steamer in Delaware Bay during her parents' tour of America. After a successful career on the stage she went to Florence to study opera singing, and became governess to Bice (Beatrice), the daughter of the widowed Thomas Adolphus Trollope (1810-1892). On 29 October 1866 she married her employer. They lived in Italy for many years. She wrote a number of novels, several of which, including 'Aunt Margaret's Trouble' (1866) and 'Mabel's Progress' (1867), were serialized anonymously by Dickens in All the Year Round. After her husband's death in 1892 she wrote the life of her mother-in-law, Frances Trollope (1779-1863). During her last years her sister Ellen lived with her in Southsea, and she died there on 14 August 1913. Maria Susanna Taylor (1837-1904) nee Ternan, sister of Ellen and Frances Eleanor, appeared with her sisters on the stage until her marriage, on 9 June 1863, to William Rowland Taylor, the son of a prosperous Oxford brewer. Shortly after her mother's death she left her husband, and at the age of forty enrolled at the Slade School of Fine Art to learn to paint. She made her home in Rome and travelled adventurously in north Africa; and she worked as an artist and journalist, writing for the London Standard for more than twelve years. She returned to England in 1898 and died in Southsea on 12 March 1904.
Logan was born in Liverpool in 1910 and went on to be educated at University College, Oxford. During 1935-1936 he held the Henry fellowship at Harvard and during 1936-1937 was assistant lecturer in Law at the London School of Economics. Logan was called to the bar (Middle Temple) in 1937 and also elected a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. During World War Two Logan worked for the Ministry of Supply before being appointed in 1944 as Clerk of the Court at London University where he became Principal in 1948. In 1959 Logan was knighted and went on to receive honorary fellowships from the London School of Economics (1962), University College Oxford (1973) and University College London (1975) as well as honorary degrees from numerous universities around the world. He died at University College Hospital, London, in 1987.
Son of the deposed King James II of England, James Edward Francis Stuart made several abortive attempts to regain the English throne. In 1715 John Erskine, 6th Earl of Mar, raised a Jacobite rebellion in Scotland, and the Pretender landed at Peterhead, Aberdeen, on 22 Dec 1715. By 10 Feb 1716, the uprising had collapsed and James had returned to France.
Very little is known about Johannes Gratian, who was born in Italy, possibly in Chiusi, Tuscany. He became a Camaldolese monk, and taught at Bologna. At a date some time after 1139 (probably 1140), Gratian compiled the Church laws (`canons') from all available sources and called the collection Concordia Discordantium Canonum (the harmonizing of discordant canons). The collection became known as the Decretum Gratiani. He died before 1179, some say as early as 1160. Although the Dectretum was not an official collection, it was, for a time and for all practical purposes, accepted as the fundamental text of Church law.
Turnpike Trusts were local organisations in England and Wales, each established by an Act of Parliament. They usually comprised local gentry, manufacturers, and other substantial persons. Trusts were often charged with repairing certain roads which were listed in the Act. They were frequently authorised to divert roads, and occasionally to build completely new ones. The Birmingham and Bromsgove road was turnpiked in 1726.
Stephen Elvey was born in 1805 in Canterbury and was trained as a chorister at the Cathedral under Highmore Skeats. In 1830 he became organist at New College Oxford and then at St Mary's University Church and St John's College. He composed a few, yet significant, pieces of sacred music including Evening Service in Continuation of Croft's Morning Service in A (1825) and The Psalter, or Canticles and Psalms of David (Parker and Co, Oxford, 1856). He died in 1860.
Stephen Elvey's younger brother, George, was born in 1816 in Canterbury. Also an organist George attended the Royal Academy and graduated from New College Oxford in 1838 when he was appointed organist to St George's Chapel. George Elvey composed church music as well as teaching several members of the Royal family. He was knighted in 1871 and died in 1893.
Charles William Crawley (1899-1992) was educated at Winchester and Trinity College, Cambridge University. He was a Fellow of Trinity Hall from 1924 to 1966, during which time he acted as Assistant Tutor (1927), Senior Tutor (1946-1958) and Vice-Master (1950-1966). He was University Lecturer in History from 1931-1966. His writings include The question of Greek independence, 1821-33 (1930); (ed)New Cambridge Modern History, Vol IX (1965); John Capodistrias: unpublished documents (1970); and Trinity Hall: the history of a Cambridge College, 1350-1975 (1976).
Opal Whiteley was born on December 11th 1897, in Colton, Washington, the daughter of Edward and Lizzie Whiteley. During Opal's childhood the family moved to the rural area of Oregon where she grew up. From a very young age she demonstrated an enthusiasm and affinity with nature. She was also very much involved in church activities and gained a reputation as a speaker and a teacher on the natural world.
Whiteley enrolled to study at the University of Oregon in 1916. She supported herself by giving lectures, but unfortunately could not afford to complete her studies. In 1918 she went to Hollywood in order to try and become a film actor but was this was an unsuccessful venture. Her lectures, however, continued to be popular, and she began work on a nature book for children called The Fairyland All Around Us. She covered the cost of publication by raising subscriptions, but ran out of money when she wanted to make changes to the printing plates, and these were destroyed by the publishers. Whiteley continued to work on the book by hand, to the detriment of her health.
Whilst trying to find a publisher for The Fairyland All Around Us, Whiteley met Ellery Sedgwick, editor of the American periodical The Atlantic. It was in this journal that The Story of Opal: The Journal of an Understanding Heart was first published. Introduced as the diary written by Whiteley during her sixth and seventh years, it was an immediate success. However, within a year of its publication there was considerable controversy about the work. Many people came to believe that it was a hoax, and that it had actually been written by the adult Whiteley.
The issues surrounding Whiteley and her work are further confused by the doubts surrounding her identity. From about the time of the publication of the Diary Whiteley began to claim that she was the daughter of Henri d'Orléans, a prince of the deposed royal family of Bourbon of France. This man, and her mother (who was identified variously by Whiteley) are referred to 'Angel Father' and 'Angel Mother' in the Diary. From this time onward she began to use the name Françoise de Bourbon d'Orléans.
Whiteley devoted much of her time to the search for information about what she regarded as her true parentage. Various influential people supported her in this search. In 1923 she used money received from Lord Grey of Falloden, who had become a close friend after reading the Diary, to travel to England. From England she went to France where she visited Françoise Marie Amélie d'Orléans, the mother of Henri d'Orléans. She, in turn, provided the funds for Whiteley to travel to the Udaipur region of India, where Henri d'Orléans died, so that she could find out more about him. From September 1924 Whiteley lived at the guesthouse of the palace of the maharana of Udaipur, under the assumed name of Françoise d'Orlé.
While she was in India Whiteley carried out extensive research into the customs, activities, life and surroundings of the areas in which she travelled. The results of this work can be partially seen in an article, The Story of Unknown India, which was eventually published by The Queen magazine. She also had plans to publish longer works on the subject of India, but these never came to fruition.
Whiteley returned to England in 1925, and in 1926 she travelled to Rome, and then on to Vienna where she spent 2 years living in a convent. In 1927 she returned to England, and for the next 20 years lived variously in London and in Oxford. She devoted herself to her writings, collecting books relating to her researches and to her Catholic faith. Her writings from this period grow increasingly confused, and many of her many friends and supporters appear to have lost touch with her from the late thirties onwards. In 1948 Whiteley was found to be unable to look after herself, and was taken into the care of Napsbury Hospital in St Albans. She died there in February 1992.
Perez was born in 1711 in Italy. He composed several operas, amongst them Didone Abbandonata, 1753. He died in 1778.
No information available at present. Melloney Hotspur by John Masefield, was published by William Heinemann in 1922.
No information was available at the time of compilation.
No information available at present.
The Madrigal Society were involved in reviving Renaissance vocal music in the 18th and 19th centuries.
The Catch Club were involved in reviving Renaissance vocal music in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Thomas Sturge Moore was a poet, art and literature critic, book designer, illustrator, editor, stage-designer and wood engraver. He was born on 4 March 1870 and was educated at The Croydon Art School and Lambeth Art School. Sturge Moore was a prolific poet and his subjects included, morality, art and the spirit. His first pamphlet, Two Poems, was printed privately in 1893 and his first book of verse, The Vinedresser, was published in 1899. His love for poetry lead him to become an active member of the Poetry Recital Society. His first (of 31) plays to be produced was Aphrodite against Artemis (1906), staged by the Literary Theatre Club of which he became a member in 1908. He received a civil list pension in 1920 in recognition for his contribution to literature and in 1930 he was nominated as one of seven candidates for the position of Poet Laureate. He died on 18 July 1944.
Nathaniel Lardner (1684-1768) was born in Kent and trained at the Presbyterian Academy in London. From 1699-1703 he studied in Utrecht, afterwards returning to London where he undertook 6 years of private study. In 1709 he preached his first sermon in the church of his study colleague Martin Tomkiss in Stoke Newington. From 1713 to 1721 Lardner was domestic chaplain to Lady Treby, and tutor to her youngest son. On her death in 1721, he took over the role of assistant to his father at the Presbyterian meeting house in Hoxton Square. In 1723 he gave a series of lectures on 'The credibility of Gospel history', which began a life's work on the subject. His first publication of the lecture series in 1729 placed him in the first rank of Christian apologists, and he continued to write on Gospel history for the remainder of his life. He also acted as a preacher at the Presbyterian meeting house in Poor Jewry Lane from 1729 to 1751, being elected Pastor in 1740. IN 1745 he gained a D.D. from Marischal College in Scotland.
No information available at present.
The North Midland Railway to Masborough opened on 11 May 1840.
Carlton was a collector of all things concerning the history of shorthand.
Douglas was educated at Dulwich College and ordained in 1894 at Newark. He undertook many positions within the Anglican Church and was Rector of St Michael Paternoster Royal, 1933-53. Alongside his ecclesiastic commitments, Douglas also took several senior positions with the University of London and was Chairman of Convocation in 1939. He published several books, mostly on aspects of the Eastern Orthodox Church. He died in 1956.
Fuller was born in 1882 and went on to study to be a solicitor before World War One. Joining the army, he rose to the rank of captain before leaving due to ill health and loss of hearing which prevented him from returning to his legal career. Fuller was interested in collecting Pacific and African artefacts and went on to become honorary curator in the Ethnological Department of the British Museum. He was also an avid antiquarian. He died in 1961.