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Anthony Crossland, in his notable 1965 Woolwich speech, laid out the Government's vision for a binary system of Higher Education within the UK: i.e. universities and polytechnics, where the latter would concentrate on high-level vocational skills. He claimed that, whilst it is always sensible to build on what already exists if rapid expansion is to be achieved within limited resources, it is also important to offer an alternative channel to H.E. that is distinct from the established University system in a number of ways:

Distinct in traditions that have been inherited from its precursors in the non-university sector

Distinct in its adaptability and responsiveness to social change

Distinct organisationally

Distinct in the kind of students that it attracts

The City of London Polytechnic was formed in 1970 from an amalgamation of the City of London College, the Sir John Cass College and the Navigation College at Tower Hill and it was one of the first of the London-based polytechnics to be so designated. It was initially organised into 4 Schools:

The Sir John Cass School of Science and Technology

The Sir John Cass School of Art

The School of Navigation

The School of Business Studies

In 1972 it became one of the first institutions in the country approved to run a modular degree. In 1977 it took responsibility for the running of the Fawcett Library (subsequently renamed the Women's Library), the oldest established women's library in the UK. It merged with the London College of Furniture in 1990. In 1992 the Polytechnic was granted university status - and, with that, its own degree-awarding powers - by the Further and Higher Education Act of that year and was renamed London Guildhall University.

The King Edward VII Nautical School was founded in 1902 by the British Sailors' Society. The Directors of the Society acted as the first governing body of the School, which was based over a seamen's hostel at 680 Commercial Road, Stepney, London. In 1926 the school became a recognised school of technical instruction aided by the London County Council (LCC). In 1949 the LCC implemented a further education development plan for nautical education. Under this scheme, senior courses would be established at Sir John Cass College, while junior courses would be run at the King Edward VII School (and later at a new college at Greenhithe). Further rationalisation occurred in the 1960s when the Department of Navigation of Sir John Cass College merged with the King Edward VII Nautical College in 1969 and moved to a new building at Tower Hill, London.

In 1893 the Vestry of St Leonard's, Shoreditch, inaugurated Trade Classes for the local youth. Although these were not aimed solely at the furniture trade, furniture and related trades were the foremost trades of the area and so the principal focus of the classes. These were held at 35 and 37 Hoxton Street and became known as the Shoreditch Municipal Technical School. By 1897 a formal body for the management of the school had been established and the Technical Education Board (TEB) of the London County Council (LCC) had agreed to purchase the former Haberdashers' Aske's School in Pitfield Street as premises.

The new institution, renamed the Shoreditch Technical Institute (STI), was run by the TEB with a local advisory committee, and opened in 1899, with 162 students. A Domestic Economy School for Girls opened at Pitfield Street in 1900 (and closed in 1918 as demand for places fell during World War One). A Trade School for 14-16 year old boys opened in 1901, and a similar school for girls opened in 1906, both at Pitfield Street. Teacher training started at the STI in 1919. During World War Two the STI was given over to army training and the trade schools were evacuated elsewhere. After the war, Pitfield Street was given over to teacher training until 1951. The remnant of the STI was based in Hammond Square, Shoreditch, and was re-established as the Technical College for the Furnishing Trades at Pitfield Street in 1951, with a new emphasis on design as well as craftsmanship and aimed at post 18 and adult education.

In 1964 the Institute was renamed the London College of Furniture (LCF). The College expanded rapidly during the 1960s as the range of courses increased to cover, amongst others, cabinet making, upholstery, wood machining and musical instrument construction. The existing accommodation was inadequate and during the 1960s plans were made to move the LCF to new premises at 41-71 Commercial Road, Stepney. Occupation took place in 1971 and the new building was officially opened in 1972. By 1975 there were approximately 500 full time and sandwich students and 1000 part timers, in three main divisions: Furniture, Interior Design and Musical Instruments. During the 1980s the Inner London Education Authority (ILEA) attempted to involve the LCF in its plans to create a single London Institute out of the several art and technical colleges which it ran. The LCF was reluctant however, as staff and students felt that its profile was unsuitable to merger within the proposed London Institute, and that instead its future would be best served by an alliance with the City of London Polytechnic. The LCF joined the Polytechnic as part of the Sir John Cass Faculty of Art, Design and Manufacture in 1990. The Polytechnic became London Guildhall University in 1992.

Sir John Cass (1666-1718) was a City of London politician and builder, who founded a charity school near St. Botolph's, Aldgate, which opened in 1710 (in his will of 1709, he also left £1000 to endow another school in Hackney). His charity continued to fund the Sir John Cass Foundation School as well as providing for the establishment of the Sir John Cass Technical Institute, which was founded in 1899 and moved into newly built premises at 31 Jewry Street, London, in 1902. It changed its name to Sir John Cass College in 1950. In 1965 the College's Department of Fine and Applied art merged with the Department of Silversmithing and Allied Crafts from the Central School of Art to form the Sir John Cass School of Art, which moved into its own new premises at Central House, opposite the Whitechapel Art Gallery. The College's Department of Navigation of merged with part of the King Edward VII Nautical College in 1969 and moved to a new building at Tower Hill, London. The Sir John Cass College merged with the City of London College in 1970 to form the City of London Polytechnic.

The first Theatre Royal, Covent Garden was built by actor-manager John Rich, designed by the architect Edward Shepherd, and opened on 7 December 1732. It operated under the auspices of letters patent initially granted to Sir William Davenant, as one of only two recognised play houses in London.

It was mainly a playhouse, but music and dance were also performed there. George Frederic Handel wrote a number of operas and oratorios for this theatre, as well as bequeathing his organ to it. In 1791, Thomas Harris took over the management of the theatre and redesigned its interior several times before the building was accidentally burnt down in September 1808. A new theatre was constructed and opened in September 1809, under the joint management of Harris and John Kemble, designed by Robert Smirke.

The Theatres Act of 1843 ended the Theatre Royal's monopoly on drama production. In 1847, it became the Royal Italian Opera when the conductor Michael Costa, along with a number of singers including Giuseppe and Fanny Persiani, and Giulia Grisi, left the Italian Opera at the Queen's Theatre, Haymarket, to establish a rival company. The building was redesigned as an Italian opera house and the Royal Italian Opera was opened. In 1856 the theatre again burnt down. A new theatre was designed by E M Barry, with a glass and iron arcade - the Floral Hall. It opened in May 1858, and its popularity grew, despite the poor access to the auditorium, which meant that the audience took so long to find their seats that the final act of the first performance was cancelled. The Italian Opera ceased in 1892, and the theatre became the Royal Opera House. The building underwent a number of alterations. In 1899, the Conservatory bar was added to the terrace above the portico, and later the stage was remodelled by Edwin O Sachs. Profits declined however, such that during World War 1, the building was used as a warehouse. In 1919, it was sold to the family company of Sir Thomas Beecham, interest revived and the Royal Opera House Company renovated the building in 1933, however the declaration of World War 2 had an adverse effect. During this period, no opera was staged, instead the building was lease to Mecca Cafes Ltd, who converted it for use as a ballroom, which proved very popular.

After the War, the music publishers Boosey and Hawkes acquired the lease of the building. Funding was secured from the Arts Council of Great Britain for the establishment of resident companies - the Covent Garden Opera Company, the Sadler's Wells Ballet Company under the direction of Ninette de Valois. The ballet company obtained its royal charter in 1956, and the opera company in 1968. The Sadler's Wells Theatre Ballet remained as a company of the ROH performing at various theatres, until 1991, when it became the Royal Birmingham Ballet.

The building continued to undergo modification, in 1953, the floor was relayed and the angle altered, in 1964 the amphitheatre and gallery were combined into one space, and an extension was built in 1982. Major development undertaken in 1996, with the addition of a new wing along Russell St, and major development of the theatre and site was undertaken between 1996-1999

In 1980, the freehold of the building passed to the Government for the Royal Opera House Covent Garden Ltd, which is the parent company of The Royal Opera, The Royal Ballet, and the Orchestra of the ROH.

Gerhard Lohmeyer attended Frankfurt University in 1948.

Born 1869; District Commissioner, Ikom, Eastern Province, Nigeria; Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1909-1918; died, 1917.

John Clarke was a Baptist missionary who spent time in Fernando Po (Bioko, Equatorial Guinea), 1841-1847 and Havanna la Mar, Jamaica, 1854.

Mary Edith Durham born in London on 8 December 1863; educated at Bedford College, 1878-1882; became an artist, and trained at the Royal Academy Schools. Following illness and at nearly forty years old she travelled to the Balkans and worked as a political missionary. She first visited the area in 1900. She started travelling in search of health and was an anthropologist as well as a gifted artist. She travelled to the Balkans annually from 1900 to 1914. When uprisings occurred, in 1903 and 1909, she provided medical aid and food. Following the end of the Second World War, Durham was offered a permanent home in Albania by the Albanian Government. She refused, choosing to remain independent and settled in London writing books and articles. She died in London on 15 November 1944.

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The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (RAI) is the world's longest-established scholarly association dedicated to the furtherance of anthropology (the study of humankind) in its broadest and most inclusive sense. The present Institute was formed when the Ethnological Society of London and the Anthropological Society of London merged in 1871 to form the Anthropological Institute. Royal status was granted in 1907.

The Royal Anthropological Institute, which dates from 1843, has gathered various papers and collections over time; unpublished papers, not directly part of the Institute's own history, form the Manuscript Collection; for papers relating to the history and activities of the Institute see the 'Archives' collection.

Born 1874; served as British Resident to the Sultan of Zanzibar, 1923-1929; Governor of Trinidad and Tobago, 1930-1936; died 1961.

Born 1907; read history, Emmanuel College, Cambridge; Indian Civil Service, 1930; Deputy Commissioner of the Santal Parganas, 1942-1946; editor of Man in India, 1942-1949; Keeper of the Indian section of the Victoria and Albert Museum, 1949; Royal Asiatic Society's Burton Memorial Medal, 1978; died, 1979.

Edward Horace Man was colonial administrator of the Andaman and Nicobar Commission, he retired c 1900 and died, 1929. He published On the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands in around 1885.

Born, 1881; educated: Stirling high school; joined the Imperial Yeomanry at the outbreak of the South African War, 1899; joined Central African trading company, the African Lakes Corporation, 1902; posted Blantyre, Nyasaland and later Lilongwe; joined customs service of the West African colony of the Gold Coast, 1906; studied anthropology at Exeter College, Oxford: diploma, 1914, BSc, 1925, and DSc, 1929; assistant district commissioner in Ejura, in the northern region of Asante, 1913; captain in the Gold Coast regiment, 1914; saw action during the invasion of the German colony of Togoland; called to the bar in 1918; assistant colonial secretary and clerk to the legislative assembly, Accra, 1919; special commissioner and the first 'government anthropologist', Asante, 1920; retired from the colonial service, 1928; died, 1938.

Publications:

Folklore, Stories and Songs in Chinyanja (1907)

Hausa Folklore

Elementary Mole Grammar (1918)

Ashanti Proverbs (1916)

Ashanti (1923)

Religion and Art in Ashanti (1927)

Ashanti Law and Constitution (1929)

Akan-Ashanti Folk-Tales (1930)

Tribes of the Ashanti Hinterland (1932)

Born, 1848; educated: Tipperary Grammar School; Trinity College, Dublin; Indian Civil Service, 1871-1895; Collector and Magistrate at various times of the districts of Saharanpur, Gorakhpur, Mirzapur in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh; wrote prolifically on India, particularly on Ethnology, Anthropology and Folklore; died, 1923.

Thomas Crawford Johnston was a scholar working in San Francisco, USA. He was an honorary member of the Geographical Society of California.

Born, 1801; in the summer of 1820, while still a student, he made a voyage to the Arctic regions in the capacity of surgeon to a whaling ship; qualified LSA, 1823; medical officer for the Stoke upon Trent district; parish medical officer in Shelton; MRCS, 1843; FSA, 1854; graduated MD at St Andrews, 1862; member of the Anthropolical Society, 1863; for many years Davis devoted himself to craniology, and gradually accumulated a huge number of skulls and skeletons of various races, most with carefully annotated histories; joint editor of the Journal of the Anthropological Institute and of Anthropologia; FRS, 1868; died, 1881.

Publications:

Crania Britannica (1865)

Thesaurus Craniorum (1867)

Father Noel Baudin of the Apostolic Vicariate of the Bight of Benin was a French Roman Catholic missionary in Benin, 1885.

Born 1840; member of the Essex Field Club; Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute (RAI), 1881-1923; RAI Council member, 1887-1901; died, 1923.

August Vogl was an author whose publications included Wahrhafte Heilkunst (Glückstadt: J J Augustin, 1950) and Verhängnisvolle Heilkunst (Hamburg, Nölke, 1948).

Born in Budapest, Hungary, 1875; educated in Hungary and Germany; worked for a time in a bank in Brussels; travelled and worked in equatorial Africa, 1900-1910; colonial administrative post at Lake Mweru in the south-east of Congo Free State, 1900-1904; employee of the Compagnie du Kasai, Belgian Congo; increasingly came to act as an agent of the British Museum; undertook ethnographic surveys of the people of the Kwango-Kwilu river basin and of the Kasai, formed comprehensive ethnographic collections, and created photographic and phonographic records; the centre point of Torday's ethnographic work was his engagement with the Kuba peoples; Torday was an excellent linguist who learned to speak fifteen languages, eight of them African; mounted his own expedition in the Belgian Congo, 1907; returned to Europe, 1909; awarded the Imperial gold medal for science and art by the Emperor of Austria, 1910; died, 1930.

Publications:

On the Trail of the Bushongo (1925)

Descriptive Sociology: African Races (1930)

Alfred Lionel Lewis was a chartered accountant; joined the Anthropological Society of London (ASL), 1866; specialised in the study of stone monuments; member of the Council of the ASL, 1869; member of the Association, 1869; elected to the Association's General Committee; member of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (RAI)

on its formation, 1871; Honorary Secretary of the London Anthropological Society, 1873-1875; rejoined the RAI, 1875; RAI Council member, 1976; RAI treasurer, 1886-1903; RAI Vice President, 1905-1908; died 1920.

Born, 1853; educated, City of London School; worked for a railway company, 1869; moved to Fulham district board of works; worked for the Metropolitan Board of Works (later the London County Council), 1873-1914; Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, the Royal Statistical Society, the Anthropological Institute, and other learned societies; founder member (1878) and sometime Secretary and President of the Folk-Lore Society; died, 1916.

Born, 1854; educated at Rugby; read law and qualified as a solicitor, but never practised; voyage in the Pacific, 1879-1881, where he visited Fiji, Tonga and Samoa and collected a large number of artefacts - he thus became interested in ethnography; worked as a supernumerary in the Ethnological Collections of the British Museum; second Pacific voyage, 1895; died, 1930.

Publications:

An Album of the Weapons, Tools, Ornaments, Articles of Dress of the Natives of the Pacific Islands, Drawn and Described from examples in public and private collections in England

Francis J Hambly was a Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1943-[1946], he died either in 1945 or 1946.

Monique de Lestrange studied at the l'École Pratique des Hautes-Études in the Laboratoire d'Anthropologie du Musée de l'Homme; worked in Youkounkoun, Senegal, [1946]; married fellow anthropologist Robert Gessain and spent time with him in Guinea, 1946-1955; she published several works, notably on the subject of the Coniagui, an ethnic group from Guinea and Senegal.

Born Adolphe Brewster Brewster, 1855; Commissioner of Colo (Tholo), North and East Provinces, Fiji, [c1884]; he later changed his name to Adolphe Brewster Joske. He retired to England and died in 1937. The Brewster family were noted for their pioneering work in establishing the sugar industry in Fiji, including the importation of machinery for Fiji's first sugar mill.

Publications: The Hill Tribes of Fiji: A Record of Forty Years (Seeley, Service & co., 1922)

Unknown

Born in New York,1907; graduated BA from Columbia University, New York, 1934; PhD, 1938; university teacher; president of the American Ethnological Society; undertook fieldwork in north-western India; moved to Britain, 1952; married H. Farrant Akehurst; honorary secretary of the Royal Anthropological Institute in London, 1956; taught part-time in the Anthropology Department of the London School of Economics; died, 1961.

Publications: The Puyallup-Nisqually (1940)

Archaeology of the Columbia-Fraser Region (1950)

Born, 1867; educated in engineering at Mason Science College; served as Transport Superintendent at the coast of Mombasa for the Imperial British East Africa Company, 1890-1893; served the Foreign Service in Kenya, 1894-1921; undertook a general tour of the whole of the Central African Lake Region, 1895-1896; established a British administration in Mumias, 1895; first European to circumambulate Mt Elgon, 1896; oversaw a number of punitive expeditions, 1894-1908; Provincial Commissioner of Kavirondo Region (later called Nyanza Province) and sub-commissioner of Ukamba Province (stationed in Nairobi), c1909; retired from the Foreign Service, 1921; died 1947.

Unknown

Educated, Aberdeen; Medical Officer, Witwatersrand Native Labour Association, Ltd., Johannesburg; Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1911-1917; died, 1917.

Born in Britstown, Cape Colony, 1906; educated: South African Collegiate High School at Cape Town; MA in English and psychology at the University of Cape Town, 1926; postgraduate student in psychology at University College, London, 1930; Ratan Tata research studentship at the London School of Economics, 1930; Fellow of the International African Institute, 1934-1938; carried out fieldwork among the Tallensi of the northern territories of the Gold Coast, 1933-1934; temporary lectureship at the London School of Economics, 1938-1939; research lectureship, Oxford, 1939-1940; carried out research in Nigeria under a project organized by Margery Perham, 1941-1942; remained in west Africa to carry out intelligence work; head of the sociological department in the West African Institute, Accra, 1944; directed the Asante social survey, 1945-1946; returned to Britain, 1946; reader in social anthropology, Oxford; William Wyse chair at Cambridge, 1950-1973; died, 1983.

Publications: The Dynamics of Clanship among the Tallensi(1945)

The Web of Kinship among the Tallensi (1949)

Kinship and the Social Order (1969)

Oedipus and Job in West African Religion (1959),

Religion, Morality and the Person (1987)

Unknown.

Unknown

Aliston Blyth went on an expedition in Papua New Guinea with Mr Lyons in search of Drexler and Bell, 1920. Nothing further is known about him.

Born, 1883; educated at Wellington College and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich; commissioned into the Royal Horse and Field Artillery, 1902; posted to South Africa and Mauritius, 1903-1907; served in the Zulu rising, 1906; returned to Britain, 1907-1909; seconded to the Colonial Office as an assistant district commissioner in the British East Africa Protectorate (later Kenya), 1909-1915; re-commissioned into the Royal Artillery and served throughout the German East Africa campaign, 1915-1918; senior commissioner, Tanganyika, 1921-1926; labour commissioner, Tanganyika, 1926-1931; retired from the colonial service, 1931; consultant member of the International Labour Office's committee of experts on native labour, 1934; in the course of this work he visited the Belgian Congo, Portuguese East Africa, and Northern Rhodesia; first labour adviser to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1938-1947, in this capacity he visited the West Indies, 1938, West Africa, 1939, Ceylon, Mauritius, and Malaya, 1941 and East Africa, 1945; died 1947.

Publications: The Vanishing Tribes of Kenya (1925)

The African Labourer (1933)

Born 1868; Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1913-1945; Baronet, 1931; his company owned land in the Gran Chaco region of western Paraguay; member of the Committee of the British South American Missionary Society; died 1934.

Born, Aberdeen, Scotland, 1849; educated at Kidd's school, Aberdeen, and at the Insch Free Church School; migrated to Queensland, Australia, 1864; became familiar with the language and culture of the Kabi and Wakka peoples; gold-digger at Imbil and Ravenswood, 1864-1866; teacher for Queensland Department of Public Instruction at Dalby, 1872-1875, and the Brisbane Normal School, 1875-1876; called to the priesthood; matriculated and graduated from the University of Melbourne (BA, 1884; MA, 1886); inducted to the parish of Ballan,1887; minister at the suburban charge of Coburg, 1889-1923; lifelong interest in Aboriginal ethnography, publishing two books and numerous papers and articles on the subject; died 1929.

Publications: Eaglehawk and Crow (1899)

Two Representative Tribes of Queensland (1910)

Unknown

Edward E Long was a member of The Savage Club, Adelphi Terrace, London and a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.

Born, 1752; educated, University of Jena and the University of Gottingen; his MD thesis 'De generis humani varietate nativa' (On the Natural Varieties of Mankind), 1776, is considered influential in the development of subsequent concepts of 'human races'; Extraordinary Professor of Medicine in Göttingen, 1776; Ordinary Professor, 1778; died, 1840.

Unknown

Born 1846; educated, Christ's College, Cambridge; Assistant Commissioner of Kachar, India, 1876; Deputy Commissioner of the Garo Hills, India, 1877; Political Officer of the Naga Hills, India; died 1879.

Mary Edith Durham born in London on 8 December 1863; educated at Bedford College, 1878-1882; became an artist, and trained at the Royal Academy Schools. Following illness and at nearly forty years old she travelled to the Balkans and worked as a political missionary. She first visited the area in 1900 in search of health and was an anthropologist as well as a gifted artist. She travelled to the Balkans annually from 1900 to 1914. When uprisings occurred, in 1903 and 1909, she provided medical aid and food. Durham was offered a permanent home in Albania by the Albanian Government. She refused, choosing to remain independent and settled in London writing books and articles. She died in London on 15 November 1944.

Mary Edith Durham, artist, anthropologist and traveller, born in London on 8 December 1863; educated at Bedford College, 1878-1882; became an artist, and trained at the Royal Academy Schools. Following illness and at nearly forty years old she travelled to the Balkans and worked as a political missionary. She travelled to the Balkans annually, 1900-1914. When uprisings occurred, in 1903 and 1909, she provided medical aid and food. Following the end of the Second World War, Durham was offered a permanent home in Albania by the Albanian Government. She refused, choosing to remain independent and settled in London writing books and articles. She died in London on 15 November 1944.

Mary Edith Durham born in London on 8 December 1863; educated at Bedford College, 1878-1882; became an artist, and trained at the Royal Academy Schools. Following illness and at nearly forty years old she travelled to the Balkans and worked as a political missionary. She first visited the area in 1900 in search of health and was an anthropologist as well as a gifted artist. She travelled to the Balkans annually from 1900 to 1914. When uprisings occurred, in 1903 and 1909, she provided medical aid and food. Durham was offered a permanent home in Albania by the Albanian Government but refused, choosing to remain independent and settled in London writing books and articles. She died in London on 15 November 1944.

James Günther was a clergyman in Australia, c 1839-1971. In 1871 he was curate of St John's Parsonage, Mudgee, New South Wales, Australia.