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The St Joseph's Foreign Missionary Society (Mill Hill Missionaries) was founded at Mill Hill in 1866 by Father Herbert Vaughan (1832-1903). It was the first catholic missionary society to be founded in England.

Ordained at the age of 22, Vaughan determined to devote himself to missionary work. Not strong enough himself for the vigours of overseas work, he aimed to achieve this via the establishment of a missionary training college; he was encouraged in his plans by his friend Father (later Cardinal) Manning (1808-1892) and by Cardinal Wiseman (1802-1865).

In 1863 Vaughan embarked on a tour of Central and South America and of California to raise funds for the new College. A year after his return to England in 1865, he was able to rent a house in Mill Hill about ten miles north of London. Under conditions of some poverty, the house operated as the new missionary training school, that of St Joseph's Society for Foreign Missions. Following further fund raising initiated by Archbishop Manning in 1868, the building of a new college on a freehold site nearby was completed in 1871; at the time it served a community of 34 students.

Later that year, the first missionary endeavour of St Joseph's was realised. Rome assigned the evangelization of the recently freed black population of the southern states of the USA. To this end, Vaughan himself travelled to America with his first four missionary priests. This led to the successful establishment of a mission in Baltimore, out of which developed, by 1892, a separate society, that of the Josephite Fathers. In 1872 Vaughan became Bishop of Salford and left Mill Hill though he remained Superior General of the Missionary Society, a cause that was always to be close to his heart.

In 1884 St Peter's School, Freshfield, near Liverpool was founded to serve as a preparatory school to the college. Later on, branch colleges were opened at Rozendaal in Holland and at Brixen and Absam in the Austrian Tyrol. Subsequently, recruits were also drawn from Ireland and North America. The domestic needs of the College at Mill Hill were met by a group of sisters, led by Mother Mary Francis Ingham, whom Vaughan persuaded to move from their native Salford. The sisters became known as the Francisan Missionaries of St Joseph and actively participated in missionary work at many of the missions established by St Joseph's Society for Foreign Missions.

The work in India of the Mill Hill missionaries commenced in 1875, first in Madras where five priests and a medical missionary journeyed in 1875 and later in North West India, in what is now Kashmir and Pakistan. In 1881 Rajah Brooke provided land for a mission at Kuching in Borneo where work was carried on among tribal peoples. Missions were also established among the Maoris, in New Zealand, in 1886 and in the Philippines in 1906.

In 1895 a group of five Mill Hill Fathers, led by Father Henry Hanlon went out to East Africa to establish the Vicariate of the Upper Nile. Uganda, where the White Fathers had arrived in 1878, had become a British Protectorate in 1894 and an English rather than a French Catholic presence was thought desirable. The first mission station was built at Nsambya. Despite deaths from fever the work grew to spread in time around Lake Victoria and into Kenya.

Fatalities among mission staff also occurred in the Congo where the Mill Hill Fathers arrived in 1905. Despite a difficult location - the mission was entirely surrounded by jungle - the mission flourished. A prefecture was established in 1927, a vicariate followed in 1948 and a diocese in 1959. In 1921 a party of Mill Hill missionaries went to the Cameroons, taking over from a mission developed by German missionaries and where the church had been kept alive by a faithful catechist, Matthias Efiem. From 1938 to 1964 when they were expelled Mill Hill missionaries also worked in the Sudan.

Missions established in the second half of the twentieth century included: a mission to the Falklands and surrounding areas, a mission to Santiago Chile and a mission to Brazil. By 1960 there were 1,200 Mill Hill missionaries serving in four continents.

For further information see:
James Dempsey, Mission on the Nile (London: Burns & Oates, 1955). H. P. Gale, Uganda and the Mill Hill Fathers (London: Macmillan and Co Ltd, 1959). Christopher Cook, A century of charity: the story of the Mill Hill Missionaries (London: Incorporated Catholic Truth Society, 1965). Robert J.O'Neil, Mission to the British Cameroons (London:Mission Book Service, 1999. Robert J.O'Neil, Mission to the Upper Nile (London: Mission Book Service, 1999) John Rooney, Khabar gembira; a history of the Catholic Church in East Malaysia and Brunei, 1880-1976 (London: Burns & Oates; Kota Kinabalu: Mill Hill Missionaries, 1981).

The Roman Catholic Diocese of Brentwood was established in 1917, having formerly formed the eastern area of the Diocese of Westminster. It currently includes the County of Essex, as well as the London Boroughs of Newham, Waltham Forest, Redbridge, Barking and Dagenham, and Havering.

After some negotiation, Brentwood was decided on as the centre of the new diocese rather than Ilford or Chelmsford, the other suggestions. Bishop Ward was appointed Administrator of the new Diocese of Essex in March 1917 and was enthroned as Bishop of Brentwood on 7 Nov 1917, and immediately faced acute shortage of funds for the Diocese, though it did benefit from the Gillow Trust. In 1917, a new Code of Canon Law had been promulgated and Brentwood became the first diocese to effect its provisions. All the missions of the Diocese were erected into canonical parishes and the Missionary Rectors being elevated to Parish Priests, Jul 1918. The Missionary Rector of Brentwood was appointed Administrator of the Cathedral and Parish Priest, a Chapter of Canons was erected with a Provost, Jul 1918, and a Vicar General appointed, Aug 1918.

The Diocese also faced a shortage of priests - some having been released to serve as military chaplains, while and others were busy working among the many troops stationed within the borders of Essex. The Catholic population was around 26,000 in 1917. By 1919, there were an estimated 35,000 Catholics in the diocese, many of Irish deccent, with 55 Secular priests, 27 Franciscans, and 3 of other orders. There were also 30 convents of nuns including Sisters of Mercy, Franciscans, Augustinians, Ursulines and others.

In the 1920s, the chief task of Bishop Doubleday, Ward's successor, was to supervise the foundation of new parishes in the rapidly developing suburbs in the east of London, where housing estates were being built and the Ford Motor Company had located a new factory. The needs of the rural Catholic population were also growing and finding priests for all these areas was a pressing task. Doubleday was also concerned for the provision of education for Catholic children, and for adequate funding to achieve this. He founded the Diocesan Schools Commission, for the purpose of planning the development of Catholic education. New schools were opened in various parts of he diocese, but especially in conjunction with the new parishes in east London.
During World War 2, the Diocese was a centre for both evacuation and reception of evacuees from urban areas. The Diocese of Brentwood was particularly effected by air raids, and many church buildings and schools sustained substantial damage and disruption.
Following the war, London and its suburbs faced a shortage of housing, and in response local government expanded and built new housing estates, as well as establishing whole new towns. This, along with the influx of Polish refugees, expanded the Catholic population. Education underwent significant reorganistion in the wake of the Education Act 1944, and Catholic schools were not exempt from this.

Under Bishop Beck, appointed Coadjutor in 1948 and who succeeded as Bishop in 1951, the administrative and financial structures of the diocese were developed. He increased the number of students for the diocesan priesthood, and reinvigorated the clergy by moving all but a few of them to new parishes within the diocese, as well as embarking on a general visitation of the diocese himself. His foremost concern was however, the provision of new schools for growing population centres. He encouraged Catholic parents to present the problems and interests of Catholic education to the parliamentary candidates for the 1951 General Election. He also chaired the Catholic Education Council, and adopted a system for levying each parish for the financing of Catholic education. New schools were opened and existing ones expanded.

As Bishop Bernard Wall took up his post in 1956, the diocese still faced a shortage of priests, and shortage of funds. The Catholic population by this time was around 107,000 and growing. New parishes were still being formed, Bishop Wall oversaw a number of diocesan celebrations during his term of office, including a pageant in 1961 to commemorate the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales, a gathering in 1961 to remember John Paine, executed in Chelmsford in 1582, and a further rally in 1962 and 1964. In 1967 the Diocese celebrated its Golden Jubilee. In the area of Catholic schooling, the provisions of the Education Act 1959 for government funding for new schools stimulated growth, and the Education Act 1967 gave further impetus. The Brentwood Diocesan Commission for Education was established in 1968 to consider the content and pattern of Catholic education in the diocese and to advise the bishop on matters of education policy. Relations between the Catholic Church and Christians of other traditions began to improved in response to the Second Vatican Council's encouraging the Church to look in friendship towards other Christian communities. Catholics began to participate in inter-denominational societies and meetings, and local Councils of Churches. In 1967, the Diocesan Ecumenical Commission was formed.

The International Olympic Committee, formed in 1894, held its 4th Session in London between 20-22 June 1904. Three of the main organizers of this meeting were Sir Howard Vincent, the Rev Robert Stuart de Courcy Laffan and Charles Herbert, who were the British representatives on the IOC. One of the main results of the Session was the formation of the British Olympic Association (BOA) in the House of Commons on 24 May 1905. William Henry Grenfell MP, later Lord Desborough, was elected as its first chairman with de Courcy Laffan as its honorary secretary. Its remits were to spread in Great Britain the knowledge of the Olympic movement, to guarantee that the views of British sporting associations had due weight and influence in the organisation of the Olympic Games and to ensure the participation both in the Olympic Games and international athletic congresses, of representatives properly accredited by official Sporting Associations and to facilitate the attendance of such representatives. The original committee was made up of members from seven national governing bodies of sport, but today all 33 summer and winter Olympic sports are represented.

In 1906, when Rome pulled out of hosting the 1908 Olympic Games it had been awarded at the 4th IOC Session, Lord Desborough proposed that London should step in. With only two years to organize the event, the 1908 Games utilised existing venues, most notably the White City Stadium which was being constructed for the Franco-British Exhibition. When London was again awarded the Olympic Games with two years notice in 1946, this tactic of exploiting established venues was similarly employed.

One of the fundamental functions of the BOA is to provide the funding and organization to ensure that a Great Britain Team competes at the Olympic Games. Between 1936 and 1976 financial support came from nationwide public appeals for funds. However when the Government wished the British Team to boycott the 1980 Moscow Olympics in protest at the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the BOA realised that the public was unlikely to be willing to support such a cause. Under the leadership of Sir Denis Follows and influenced by the spirit of Olympism which transcends all political interference, the BOA decided to send a British Team from its own funds, a move which left it virtually bankrupt. Conscious of safeguarding against relying on such inconsistent sources of income in the future, the BOA was one of the first national Olympic committees who sought additional funding from industry such as sponsorship and merchandising.

The BOA also offers elite athletes other support services, such as medical and physiological facilities to ensure that a GB Team attending each Games is as best prepared as it can be.

As the National Olympic Committee (NOC) of Britain, the BOA is also involved in the selection process for candidate cities wishing to host the Olympic Games.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was founded in 1950, the successor to the earlier United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. The UNHCR is an impartial humanitarian organisation mandated by the United Nations to lead and co-ordinate international action for the world-wide protection of refugees and the resolution of refugee problems. Based in Switzerland, UNHCR has two basic and closely related aims: to protect refugees and to seek ways to help them restart their lives in a normal environment. In the UK the UNHCR's London office offers both legal and information services.

Eastside Community Heritage (ECH) was established in 1993 as part of the Stratford City Challenge community history project. In 1997 ECH became an independent charity. Over the years ECH has worked on numerous projects documenting the lives of 'ordinary' people from and who live in East London. In 1999 ECH established the East London Peoples Archive.

The Girls' Commercial Secondary School for Girls opened in 1919 alongside the existing Walthamstow Technical Institute. It merged with the technical institutes of Walthamstow and Leyton and the Leyton School of Art to form the South West Essex Technical College in 1938.

The MA in Gender, Sexualities and Ethnic Studies at the University of East London aims to help students to develop a theoretical and empirical understanding of the diverse ways in which gender, sexualities and ethnic divisions are structured and interrelated.

CAST began in 1965, after founder members Roland Muldoon, Claire Burnley [later Muldoon], Raymond Levene and David Hatton were ejected from the left wing Unity Theatre as a result of a failed attempt to make its productions more politically radical. Although all four members had trained and been employed behind the scenes as technical staff, the newly formed group saw them becoming the performers.

With the addition to the group of David 'Red' Saunders who had attended Roland Muldoon's and Levene's drama classes at the Working Men's College, [1965-1966], CAST produced its first original play 'John D Muggins is Dead'(1966), a 20 minute piece inspired by the movement against US involvement in Vietnam. Their next plays, performed by a series of ever changing line ups which would become the norm, were 'Mr Oligarchy's Circus' (1967) and 'The Trials of Horatio Muggins' (1967), both of which reflected the revolutionary struggles between young idealistic socialists and the English middle class. CAST usually played in non theatrical venues, such as technical colleges, universities and political meetings, where it gained a reputation for short, fast, political comedies (usually involving a protagonist with the surname of Muggins) which always played to the audience. As well as touring Britain, the group also travelled to Holland, France and Germany.

The group split in 1972 in the middle of making the short film 'Planet of the Mugs' (after previously turning down a movie offer from Andrew Oldham, the ex manager of the Rolling Stones). Red Saunders and other members of CAST went on to found 'Rock Against Racism' and 'Kartoon Klowns'. The Muldoons, however, reformed CAST but initially found it difficult to both teach newly recruited members of the troupe CAST's particular style and to attract audiences. In 1974 CAST were awarded their first funding from the Arts Council which enabled the Muldoons to begin to perform full time and eventually tour around Britain extensively. In 1980, CAST won an OBIE award in New York for outstanding script and performance for the production 'Full Confessions of a Socialist'.

The core CAST company continued to perform political pieces but in 1982 they began to organise New Variety nights, a mixture of alternative comedy and cabaret acts. The first shows took place at the Old White Horse, Brixton Road but later, with the help of grants from the GLC, the nights expanded to at least 6 venues throughout London.

The Hackney Empire was built as a music hall in 1901, designed by the architect Frank Matcham. In 1956 the theatre was sold to ATV and it became the first commercial television studios in Britain. In 1963 MECCA purchased the theatre and converted it into a bingo hall. MECCA had made some modifications to the interior decor of the Theatre but in 1979 removed the famous turreted domes and pediment from the roof of the building. However, in 1984 the Theatre gained a Grade II* listing and MECCA were ordered to restore building's exterior to its original state. As the interior was also listed, MECCA were unable to alter the original, formal theatre seating arrangement which had become increasingly unsuitable for its bingo playing audience. MECCA then offered the theatre to CAST New Variety as a permanent London base. Assisted by the London Borough of Hackney, Hackney Empire Preservation Trust (founded by the Muldoons and others in October 1986) eventually acquired the freehold from MECCA Ltd for the price of £150,000 on the understanding that they returned the building to its former use.

The Hackney Empire opened once more as a 1000 seat theatre on 9 December 1986 as the home venue for CAST New Variety (under the name Hackney New Variety). CAST New Variety still continued to run the events in smaller locations where they encouraged new acts to perform beside more established artists. By 1986 CAST New Variety were running 250 Sunday shows a year in London.

Hackney Empire went on to establish itself as one of the leading stand-up comedy venues in Britain. In 2001, the Empire began a renovation and restoration project which was completed in January 2004.

From the mid 1990s, Roland Muldoon began to become less involved with the day to day running of Hackney Empire mostly due to the financial problems which has continually affected the Theatre. He finally retired at the end of 2005 and has since begun to organize New Variety shows outside of Hackney Empire.

South West Essex Technical College and School of Art opened at Forest Road, Walthamstow in September 1938 as one of the four regional technical colleges of Essex. The College was formed by the merger of Technical Colleges of Walthamstow and Leyton, together with the Walthamstow Commercial School for Girls and the Leyton School of Art, all of which had been operating as separate institutions. It served the boroughs of Walthamstow, Leyton, Chingford, Wanstead and Woodford and the districts of Waltham Holy Cross, Epping and Ongar.

The College was given locally the title of 'The People's University' and the new building included: a 1200 seat assembly hall; two gymnasia; science laboratories; engineering workshops; architectural studios; art studios; refectory; demonstration rooms; and student and staff common rooms. The College was initially organised into the departments of: Engineering; Science; Industrial and Fine Arts; Architecture and Building; Commerce, Languages and Social Studies; Domestic Science; Music; Social and Recreational Classes; and secondary day schools for boys and girls.

During its first academic year (session 1938-1939) 6842 students enrolled, 5802 of whom were part-time evening students. This unexpectedly high number of evening students saw some classes being held temporarily in the nearby Sir George Monoux Grammar School. At Christmas 1938, these were moved to the buildings of the old Walthamstow Technical College (Grosvenor House) and Commercial School for Girls (Chestnuts) in Hoe Street which soon became a permanent arrangement.

During the Second World War, the boys' and girls' secondary schools were evacuated to Kettering, but classes continued for the senior students. However due to blackouts, problems with transport and workers undertaking overtime, many of the evening classes were moved to the weekend. After negotiations with the War Office, the College began to train military personnel in the various branches of engineering. In September 1940, it accepted its first 100 soldiers who were also billeted on College premises. As the number of service personnel (which later included members of the RAF and the Navy) being taught at the College grew to around 1000 students at a time, the Sir George Monoux Grammar School was commandeered as additional accommodation. Members of the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) were trained at the College from 1942, with courses expanding to cover commercial subjects such as typewriting and administration. Domestic Science was added in early 1945 as part of a rehabilitation scheme when 44 ATS members, all young married women, were given lessons in Cookery, Mothercraft and Dressmaking. By 1945 it was estimated that 12,000 service trainees had passed through the College.

After Grosvenor House burnt down in 1945, an annexe to the Forest Road building was constructed in prefabricated aluminium in 1949 to provide an additional 11 classrooms and an architectural studio. A further four storey building was added in September 1959 containing workshops, lecture rooms and laboratories for the Engineering, Architecture and Science departments. The secondary school separated from the College in 1957 and was relocated to Billet Road, Walthamstow, becoming the McEntee County Technical School.

In 1965, control of the College was transferred from Essex County Council to the London Borough of Waltham Forest, and in September 1966 changed its name to the Waltham Forest Technical College and School of Art. By then the College consisted of ten departments with approximately 7000 students enrolled on its courses.

Following the publication of the Government White Paper in 1966, proposals were drawn up for incorporating the advanced work together with corresponding staff, into the new North East London Polytechnic. A new Waltham Forest Technical College came into being simultaneously, taking over all the lower level work and acquiring premises in other parts of the borough whilst still retaining some accommodation temporarily at Forest Road.

Formed in 1992 from the Polytechnic of East London, previously North East London Polytechnic.

A school of art was founded in 1883 by the Walthamstow Literary Institute in Trinity schoolroom, West Avenue, which was united to the Science and Art Department, South Kensington. In 1892 it moved to Grosvenor House, Hoe Street, then on to Court House, Hoe Street, in 1900. It was taken over by Walthamstow Higher Education Committee in 1906 but was closed in 1915.

Sophia Willock was born on 15 Feb 1850, at Sandymount near Dublin, the daughter of Rev W A Willock, Fellow of Trinity College Dublin. She was educated by her father and private governesses. In 1863, the family moved to London where her father took up the post of Professor of Geometry at London University, and in 1866 Sophia became a student at Bedford College.

In 1869 she married Dr W Hicks Bryant of Plymouth. When he died in 1870, she obtained a teaching post at a school for ladies in Highgate, before joining the staff of North London Collegiate School (NLCS), Camden in 1875. In 1895 she was appointed the second Headmistress, succeeding the School's founder Frances Mary Buss.

Bryant was a brilliant scholar and teacher. She was one of three women members of the Royal Commission on Secondary Education. She was one of the first two women to graduate with a Bachelor of Science degree, and the first to obtain a Doctor of Science, awarded in 1884. In 1898 Bryant was the first woman to be elected by the Convocation of London University to the University Senate. She also served on the Technical Education Board and its successor - the Education Committee of the London County Council, representing the Board on the London Polytechnic Council, and was also a member of the Consultative Committee of the Board of Education. She also enthusiastically supported teacher training, and was a member of the Board of Studies of Pedagogy at London University, as well as a campaigner for the University's establishment of a chair of education, and chair of the Training College's Council. She was also involved with Goldsmiths' College following its transfer to the University, was honorary director of the Henrietta Barnett School, Hampstead Garden Suburb, and President of the Association of Head Mistresses.

She retired from NLCS in 1918, after 43 years of service. She died in 1922, aged 72 as the result of an accidental fall during a mountaineering holiday near Chamonix, Switzerland.

The Women's Art Library began in 1976 when a small group of women artists began to collect slides from other women artists to establish a record of their work. The Library first opened its collection to the public in 1982 as the Women Artists Slide Library during the 'Women Festivities' held in London. The Library was then housed in Battersea Arts Centre, Battersea, London. In 1987 the Library moved to Fulham Palace at the invitation of the Women's Unit of Hammersmith and Fulham Council. In 2000 the Library relocated to the Central Saint Martin's School of Art and Design, Charing Cross Road, London. In 1993 the Library was relaunched as the Women's Art Library to reflect the broader range of materials, for example published and unpublished written documentation and photographs which the Library acquired in addition to the slides. The name of the Library was changed in May 2001 to MAKE, the organisation for women in the arts. The aim of the organisation was to enhance public knowledge of the practice, impact and achievement of women in visual culture. A serial publication was produced from 1983-2002, firstly as a newsletter 'The Women's Artists Slide Library Newsletter', becoming a bimonthly 'The Women Artists Slide Library Journal', then quarterley magazine 'The Women's Art Magazine', and finally 'MAKE, the magazine of women's art'. In addition the organisation produced numerous other publications in different formats, catalogues linked with exhibitions organised by WASI, (Women in Humour, Second Viewing), a Women's Art Diary, a calendar DATRES, a Women's Art Library Slidepack (1994) which includes teacher's notes, and two anthologies of critical writings based on group exhibitions of women's art. 'Contemporary Arab Women Artists: Dialogues of the Present', 2000 and 'Private Views: spaces in Britain and Estonia', 2001.

The Anthroposophical Society was founded at the Goetheanum, Dornach, Switzerland in 1913. It had its origins in the spiritual philosophy of Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925). He called his philosophy anthroposophy', meaningwisdom of the human being'. Born in 1861, in what is now Croatia, Steiner studied science and philosophy in Vienna, and published his first philosophical treatise The Philosophy of freedom in 1894.

He based his work on direct knowledge and perception of spiritual dimensions. From his spiritual investigations Steiner provided suggestions for the renewal for many activities including education, agriculture, medicine, economics, architecture, science, philosophy, religion and the arts. In 1924, he founded the General Anthroposophical Society to which national Societies are linked. In Britain, H Heywood-Smith came across Steiner's work at the Theosophical Society rooms in London in 1908. He set about finding English translations of Steiner's other writings, and obtained permission to form a Group of the Theosophical Society to study Steiner's work - the Rosicrucian Group, in August 1911. That same year Heywood-Smith visited Berlin to hear Steiner lecture.

When the group outgrew the home of Heywood-Smith, they moved their meetings to the studio of Harry Collison, portrait painter. By May 1912, the group had 64 members. In 1913 Steiner visited England and lectured to the Anthroposophical groups.

In the 1920, Vera Compton-Burnett, her sister Juliet, and Dorothy Osmond (former head librarian at the Theosophical Society headquarters), visited the Goetheanum at Dornach, Switzerland, and met Rudolf Steiner. They began to take steps to form an Anthroposophical Association in Britain from the three existing study groups. Collison, meanwhile, had collected a small library, and a rented a studio in South Kensington was established as a headquarters with a central library of both English and German works. This Association increased in size when Daniel Dunlop and a number of others resigned from the Theosophical Society and joined the Anthroposophical Society. In the early 1920s, the studio was no longer adequate in size to hold their meetings, and they relocated to premises at 46 Gloucester Place.

In 1922, Steiner visited Britain again, and gave lectures at Stratford-on-Avon, Oxford, Ilkley, Torquay, and London. The following year, he visited several countries to be present at founding of their national Anthroposophical Societies, which were to be linked together in the General Anthroposophical Society (GAS). The Anthroposophical Society in Great Britain was re-founded at this time. Rudolf Steiner House, at 35 Park Rd, London was opened in 1926, with additional rooms added in 1932.

In 1930, a group of over a hundred members led by Collison seceded from the AS in Great Britain and formed the English Section of the General Anthroposophical Society. This group eventually reunited with the main organisation.

In April 1963 the National Economic Development Council (NEDC) recommended the establishment of a high level business school or institute run on the lines of the Harvard Business School or the School of Industrial Management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In the same year, the Robbins Committee on Higher Education recommended the establishment of two post-graduate schools of business education in the UK.

Following the NEDC Report, Lord Franks was asked to study the problem of establishing a business school or schools. The Franks Report recommended the establishment of two high quality schools, as part of existing universities (London and Manchester) but enjoying considerable autonomy. The schools would offer courses for about 200 post-graduates and 70-100 post-experience students.

A committee was established under Lord Normanbrook to consider the costs and practicalities of establishing two business schools. The committee recommended that the expenditure should be shared between the Government, through the University Grants Commission (UGC), and business. As a result, the government agreed to bear half the capital and running costs of the two schools. The Foundation for Management Education, the Federation of British Industries, and the British Institute of Management sponsored an appeal for £3 million from the business world.

An Academic Planning Board was established for the new London school under the chairmanship of Lord Plowden, with representatives from the London School of Economics (LSE), Imperial College and the business world. The school was to be formally known as the London Graduate School of Business Studies, and informally as the London Business School. The Academic Planning Board first met in June 1964, and the full 21 member Governing Body in November 1964. The two sponsoring institutions, LSE and Imperial College both nominated four members and then approved the full list.

Temporary premises were acquired in Northumberland Avenue, and Dr Arthur Earle, Deputy Chairman of Hoover Ltd was appointed Principal. The first academic appointments, two professors, a senior lecturer and a lecturer were appointed from October 1965.

The School established two post-experience courses, the Executive Development Programme designed for middle managers, which would last 12 weeks and cover the application of analysis and measurement, human behaviour and the environment of business. The Senior Executive Programme would last six weeks, and cover the broad strategy of business. The postgraduate programme was to last two academic years, and lead to the degree of MSc from the University of London. The range of studies was divided into three broad categories, data for decisions, analysis for decisions, and the environment of decisions. Students would also study applied decision-making in the functional fields of marketing, finance, production, personnel and business policy. The first post-experience courses started in February and May 1966, and the first MSc course began with 39 students in October 1966

The School moved to its present home in Sussex Place, Regent's Park in August 1970. New programmes were developed; the doctoral programme began in September 1970, the International Management Programme for MBA students in 1972, the New Enterprise Programme for individuals wishing to start their own businesses in 1979, and the Extended Enterprise Programme or 'Firmstart', aimed at owner-managers of young companies in 1986. The first research institute, the Institute of Finance and Accounting was set up in 1973, the Centre for Management Development followed in 1975, and the Institute of Small Business Management in 1976.

The School is administered by a Governing Body, which discusses major questions affecting the development and work of the School, including financial planning and the appointment of the Dean. The Governors also approve the accounts and perform such other formal corporate business as may be required. The Management Board advises the Dean and Governing Body on the development and implementation of major policies affecting programmes and research activities, staffing, premises and finances. The Management Committee is responsible for taking and implementing administrative and academic decisions necessary for the management of the School. It refers all fundamental academic or constitutional decisions to the Management Board. The School has a network of seven Regional Advisory Boards, covering Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe, Latin America, the Middle East, North America and the UK. Each Regional Advisory Board has a Chair, a Faculty Advisor, and a Student Liaison Officer. The School also has an Alumni Board, which represents the views of alumni and makes recommendations on a range of issues to the Governing Body.

Central Saint Martins College of Art & Design was formed in 1989 by the merger of the Central School of Art and Design and St Martin's School of Art. Both were constituent colleges of the London Institute which had been formed in 1986 by the Inner London Education Authority associating its art schools and specialist colleges of printing, fashion and distributive trades into a collegiate structure. In 1999 the Drama Centre London, founded in 1962, merged with Central Saint Martins, adding performing arts to the range of courses offered by the College.

Central Saint Martins comprises three Schools; Art, Fashion and Textiles and Graphic and Industrial Design, with approximately 450 to 700 students within each school. The College operates on two major sites, on Charing Cross Road, Soho and Southampton Row, Holborn.

The membership or freedom of the Company could be obtained in one of three ways: by apprenticeship (also called service or servitude) on completion of a term of apprenticeship to a freeman of the company, by patrimony, by being the legitimate child of a male freeman born after his admission to the freedom, or by redemption, which entailed the payment of a fee. The consent of the Masters and Wardens of the Company was required to become an apprentice carpenter, and the 1455 Ordinances stated the cost of becoming bound was to be 1 shilling. In 1508 this was increased to 3 shillings. If a carpenter had been apprenticed to a master carpenter of the City of London he could join the Carpenters' Company by servitude. Some apprentices did join the Company, but many did not. Once a member of the Company, freemen could be promoted to the livery, the next level of Company membership, which in turn could lead to membership of the Court of Assistants and the offices of wardens and Master. During the sixteenth century, the freemen of the Company not promoted to the livery were termed 'yeomen', being the less prosperous journeymen who worked for wealthier craftsmen (or members of the livery) for wages, but the term had fallen into disuse by the eighteenth century. Members of the livery were required to pay quarterly membership dues, known as 'quarterage', to the Company. Membership of the Company through patrimony no longer exists, having been removed as a method of admission in 2003.

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Cornelius Humphreys, was the son of David Humphreys, of Llanelli, Camarthen. He matriculated at Jesus College Oxford, 1743, aged 32. In 1752, he was appointed Rector of St Mary, Somerset, London. It is thought that he was Chaplain at on of the Chapels of the Tower of London. A transcript of his burial monument states that he was a minister of this (unidentified) chapel for thirty years, [1740-1770]. He married Agnes, who died 1789 aged 69.

The Tower of London was originally constructed in the 11th century as a fortress and has remained in periodic use particularly during times of civil disorder, as well as being a royal residence.

The Tower served several important administrative functions, housing the Privy Wardrobe, one of the departments of the Royal Household, until the mid 15th century; the Royal Mint until 1812; and the Public Record Office until the 1850s. It had an important military function, not only was it the most important arsenal in the kingdom, but also the home of the Board of Ordnance, the government department responsible for the supply of munitions and equipment to the army and navy, until its abolition in 1855.

The Tower was also used as a state prison up until the mid 17th century, and then again during the First and Second World Wars. It is particularly well known as the place of execution of two Queens of England, Anne Boleyn (1535) and Catherine Howard (1542). It was also the original home of the Royal Observatory (before it moved to Greenwich), and the King's Menagerie (the last of the animals were relocated to London Zoo in 1834). It is currently the repository of the Crown Jewels.

At its height the Tower was a thriving community under the control of the Constable and his Lieutenant. It had a large temporary population made up of the officers and workers of the Board of Ordnance and the Royal Mint, but also a significant permanent population, including the military garrison and the yeomen warders, and their families. The Tower also had its own doctor, hospital, and chapel.

The Tower was first opened to the public in 1660, but its development as a visitor attraction dates to the mid 19th century. It was then that the first official guidebooks appeared, the Jewel House was opened to visitors, and the displays of the Tower Armouries (now the Royal Armouries), where placed on a more academic basis.

The Howard de Walden Estate dates from 1715 when Edward Harley, 2nd Earl of Oxford, began the development of Cavendish Square and the streets around it. This land had previously formed part of the Marylebone Estate of the Dukes of Newcastle. It had passed from Margaret Holles, nee Cavendish, daughter of the 2nd Duke of Newcastle, to her daughter Henrietta Cavendish Harley. At the death of Henrietta's husband, Edward Harley, in 1741, this new Harley Estate passed to his only daughter, Margaret Cavendish Harley, who in 1734 had married William Bentinck, 2nd Duke of Portland. It was subsequently known as the Portland Estate, and was handed down to successive Dukes of Portland. In 1879, the 5th Duke of Portland died without issue and his estates were divided between his sisters, (according to the terms of the 4th Duke's will), and his cousin, who succeeded him as the sixth Duke. The Portland Estate eventually passed to the last surviving sister, Lucy Joan Ellis, who was the widow of the 6th Lord Howard de Walden, and has remained in this family since then.

The Estate's first business trust, General Real Estates Investment and Trust Limited (GREIT), was formed in 1918, changing its name to Howard de Walden Estates Limited (HDWEL) in 1953.
The company was incorporated in its present form in 1963, but the estate is still owned by the family.

During the twentieth century two major portions of the Estate were sold: in 1914 Portland Town, an area east of St John's Wood High Street around 60 acres in extent, and in 1925 another 40 acres, much of it along Oxford Street, south of Cavendish Square and east of Great Portland Street.

Throughout the period covered by the materials held here Mexico was governed by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Institucional, or PRI) although the relatively small number of party political documents in the collection may be seen as testimony to the limited party political challenges to its hegemony. However, increasing concern with the maintenance of internal order in the 1960s was both cause and consequence of the rise in opposition by other organisations to de facto one-party rule, as evinced in these materials by the publications of revolutionary movements, human rights organisations and groups expressing solidarity with the students massacred at Tlatelolco in 1968. Subsequently, the economic crisis which gradually enveloped Mexico in the 1970s and 1980s (as a consequence of high government expenditure and an increasing reliance on falling oil revenues) is reflected in the workers and peasants' movements represented here which prefigure the Zapatista uprising of 1994.

Following the assassination of Trujillo in 1961 the Dominican Republic endured a series of shortlived governments punctuated by coups prior to the United States military intervention in 1965. This sought to lessen potential communist influence on the island by denying the Partido Revolucionario Dominicano (PRD) power, and led to the 1966 election victory of Joaquín Balaguer Ricardo. Balaguer ruled until 1978, when American pressure forced him to accept the election victory of the PRD's Antonio Guzmán. Guzmán and his successor Salvador Jorge Blanco checked the role of the military in politics, and attenpted to implement reforms, but the PRD still lost the 1986 elections and Balaguer returned to power. Economically, this period saw the Dominican Republic prosper with a rise in sugar prices, but when these began to fall, US import quotas were cut and oil prices rose. The result was an economic crisis which saw IMF intervention and food riots by 1985. The materials held here reflect these political and economic developments, with the predominant perspectives being those of Christian organisations working with the peasantry and of the main union federation, the Central General de Trabajadores (CGT).

Following the CIA-backed military coup which removed the reformist government of Jacobo Arbenz in 1954 Guatemala endured thirty years of military rule, characterised by a tragic spiral of human rights abuses and the growth of guerilla insurgencies, both reinforcing the other. By 1982 the revolutionary groups had merged into the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG) and it was with this organisation that the civilian government elected in 1984 began negotiations in 1987. Despite various peace agreements and elections violence, abuse and poverty have remained endemic in Guatemala, with army leaders such as General Efrain Rios Montt still not having been brought to face trial. The majority of the materials held here date from the era of military rule and reflect the concerns of NGOs and local groups regarding human rights, poverty, the indigenous peoples, and the need for development. In addition there are materials from guerilla organisations and from Church groups, though the amount of actual party political material is limited.

Much of the material in this collection is concerned with the climate of violence in Uruguay in the 1970s. Some documents the activities of the Tupamaros, a left-wing urban guerrilla movement whose role in the increasing unrest in the country provided the pretext for the effective takeover of power by the armed forces in 1973. The widespread human rights abuses that occurred in the period prior to the return to civilian government in 1984 are also covered.

Tandem Films for Animation was formed in 1986 by Daniel Greaves (animator who previously studied at the West Surrey College of Art and Design) and his business partner Nigel Pay. Tandem is located in London, Islington and the website is available here http://www.tandemfilms.com/about/

A comic book is a magazine or book containing sequential art. Although the term implies otherwise, the subject matter in comic books is often serious and action-oriented and can cover a range of genres from religion to super heroes. Comic books are so called because some of the earliest comic books were simply collections of comic strips printed in newspapers. The commercial success of these collections led to work being created specifically for the comic book form, which fostered specific conventions such as splash pages.
Long-form comic books, generally with hardcover or trade-paper binding came to be known as graphic novels, but the term's definition is vague.

American comic books have become closely associated with the superhero tradition. In the United Kingdom, the term comic book is used to refer to American comic books by their readers and collectors. The term used in the Britain is a comic, short for comic paper or comic magazine.
Since the introduction of the modern comic book format in the 1934 with Famous Funnies, the United States has been the leading producer, with only the British comic and Japanese manga as close competitors in terms of quantity of titles. The majority of all comic books in the US are marketed to young adult readers, though they also produce titles for young children as well as adult audiences. This readership is reflected in the colours and themes used.
The history of the comic book in the United States is divided into several ages or historical eras: The Platinum Age, The Golden Age, The Silver Age, The Bronze Age, and The Modern Age.

The Golden Age is generally thought as lasting from the introduction of the character Superman in 1938 until the early 1950's. During this time, comic books enjoyed considerable popularity; the archetype of the superhero was invented and defined, and many of the most popular superheroes were created. The Platinum Age refers to any material produced prior to this, these were simply reprints of newspaper strips.

The Silver Age of Comic Books is generally considered to date from the first successful revival of the dormant superhero form in 1956 through to the early 1970's, during which time Marvel Comics revolutionised the medium with naturalistic superheroes as the Fantastic Four and Spider-Man. There is less agreement on the beginnings of the Bronze and Modern ages. Some suggest that the Bronze Age is still taking place but it is generally accepted that it started 1970-1971. The start of the Modern Age (occasionally referred to as the Iron Age) has even more potential starting points, but is generally agreed to be the publication of Alan Moore's Watchmen by DC Comics in 1986.
comics published after World War II in 1945 are sometimes referred to as being from the Atomic Age (referring to the dropping of the atomic bomb), while titles published after November 1961 are sometimes referred to as being from the Marvel Age (referring to the advent of Marvel Comics).

American comic books are generally noted to be mainstream: meaning they have mass appeal and focus on socially acceptable issues and genres, such as good verses evil.
Originally the same size as a usual comic book in the United States, although lacking the glossy cover, the British comic has adopted a magazine size, with The Beano and The Dandy the last to adopt this size in the 1980s. Although generally referred to as a comic, it can also be referred to as a comic magazine, and has also been known historically as a comic paper. Some comics, such as Judge Dredd and other 2000 AD titles, have been published in a tabloid form. It is also not uncommon for gifts to accompany comic magazines such as, badges or cigarette card holders.

Popular titles within the UK have included The Eagle and 2000 AD. Underground comics and titles have also been published within the United Kingdom, these often have a genre specific angle or message such as, women's rights or sexual education.

Marvel Comics established a UK office in 1972. DC Comics and Dark Horse Comics also opened offices in the 1990s. These repackage American titles for a UK audience, they are often less glossy and colourful than their US counterparts.
At Christmas time, publishers repackage and commission material for comic annuals, printed and bound as hardcover A4-size books. A famous example of the British comic annual is Dr Who.

France and Belgium are two countries that have a long tradition in comics and comic books, where they are called Bande Dessine (BD for short) in French and strips in Dutch. Belgian comic books originally written in Dutch are influenced by the Francophone comics, but have their own distinct style.
La bande dessine is derived from the original description of the art form as drawn strips (the phrase is literally translated as the drawn strip).
In France, most comics are published at the behest of the author, who works within a self-appointed time frame, and it is common for readers to wait six months or as long as two years between installments. Most books are first published as a hard cover book, typically with 48, 56 or 64 pages. In Italy, comics are known as fumetti and began as humouristic strips and then evolved into adventure stories inspired by those coming from the US in the 1940's.
Mainstream comics are usually published on a monthly basis, in a black and white digest size format, with approximately 100 to 132 pages. Collections of classic material for the most famous characters, usually with more than 200 pages, are also common. Author comics are published in the French BD format.
In the late 1960's and early 1970's, a surge of underground comics occurred and has continued. These comics were published and distributed independently of the established comics industry, and most titles reflected the youth counterculture and drug culture of the time. Many were notable for their uninhibited, often irreverent style; the frankness of their depictions of nudity, sexual content, and politics had not been seen in comics before. Underground comics were almost never sold at newsstands, but rather in such youth-oriented outlets such as record stores and by mail order.
The term graphic novel was first used in 1964. Graphic novels tend to be bound and longer in length than comics. They often represent known prose stories such as, Treasure Island or plays such as Othello in a comic strip format. Thus, they make these stories accessible to new and often younger audiences.

Born 15 Aug 1891; educated Aldenham Institute, evening classes in letterpress printing, 1907-1916; apprentice and journeyman, Wyman and Sons, London, 1905-1915; compositor, layout-man and reader, Crowther and Co, 1915-1918; Overseer of compositor and deputy to Chief of Letterpress Dept, National Institute for the Blind, 1918-1920; Instructor, St Bride's Foundation Printing School, 1920-1922; Instructor, London School of Printing, Aug 1922-Jul 1956; continued to work as a part-time instructor at LSP until July 1961; member of various trade unions, including the London Society of Compositors, the London Typographical Society and the National Graphical Association; died 1989.

London College of Communication, London College of Printing until a name change in 2004, is the largest College of University of the Arts London [formerly London Institute, founded 1985, name change 2004] with around 9000 students. It has formed over a number of years, from its inception in 1893 until the present day, through developments of curriculum, name changes and mergers: St Bride Foundation Printing School [founded 1883], became London School of Printing and Kindred Trades in 1922; Bolt Court Technical School, formerly the Guild and Technical School, Clerkenwell [founded 1894, name change 1895, merged 1949]; College for Distributive Trades [merged 1990]; Westminster Day Continuation School [founded 1921, renamed the School of Retail Distribution 1929]; and the Printing Department of the North Western Polytechnic [founded 1883, opened 1929, merged 1969].

In 1949 Bolt Court and the College of Printing and Kindred Trades merged to form the London School of Printing and Graphic Arts, renamed London College of Printing in 1962 when it took up its current site at Elephant and Castle, South London. The building was officially opened in 1964 by Sir Isaac Hayward. On the merger with College for Distributive Trades the College changed its name again to reflect the new disciplines offered to the London College of Printing and Distributive Trades, then in 1996 to London College of Printing.
Both St Brides and North Western were established by the City of London Parochial Charities Act and thus have always been rooted in London and its communities. When St Brides opened the doors, in 1894, of its first evening courses 124 students attended. Until 1912 there was no full time principal, then Mr J. R. Riddell was appointed. His appointment lead teaching from textbook based lessons to practical lessons. The first full time courses soon followed, 1919. Thus, from the first the College has specialised in and developed course in all aspects of printing and communication, from photography to graphic design.

Today the College is made up of four Schools: School of Graphic Design; The School of Creative Enterprise; School of Media; School of Printing and Publishing.

Stanley Kubrick was born in New York City in 1928. At the age of 16 Kubrick took a photograph of a newsvendor the day after President Roosevelt died. Look magazine printed the photo and hired him as a freelance photographer, he worked on over 300 jobs. After creating a boxing photo essay for Look, he used his savings to make his first short film 'Day of the Fight' in 1950, a 16-minute documentary. Two other shorts and thirteen feature films followed. Compared to many directors Kubrick did not produce many films. However, he successfully spanned a plethora of genres from science fiction to costume drama.

Kubrick's influence on film is manifested in numerous ways, from lighting to special effects to film content to music. For example, his pioneering use of long takes, first used in Lolita using a high Average Shot Length, have inspired cinematographers since, as seen in the opening shot of 1997's Boogie Nights. Kubrick had a high level of artistic control and kept many items and papers relating to his film making. At the completion of a project Kubrick would box up items relating to it and store them.

Kubrick's influence goes beyond that of the film world to popular culture. The content of his films have been responsible for sparking public debate and discourse for example, Clockwork Orange (1971) is a dystopia featuring violence and sexual content that provoked debate on the nature of society and the portrayal of violence on screen.

Kubrick had an unprecedented level of control over his films and was interested in every aspect of the film making process. Therefore, his collection can inspire not only film makers but costume designers, advertisers, graphic artists and photographers to name but a few.
Kubrick and his family moved to England in 1969, where he lived until his death in 1999.

Stanley Kubrick: Filmography:

1953 'Fear and Desire' (not on general release)

1955 'Killer's Kiss'

1956 'The Killing'

1957 'Paths of Glory'

1960 'Spartacus'

1962 'Lolita'

1964 'Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb'

1968 '2001: A Space Odyssey'

1971 'A Clockwork Orange'

1975 'Barry Lyndon'

1980 'The Shining'

1987 'Full Metal Jacket'

1999 'Eyes Wide Shut'

Kubrick planned to make two further films, 'Napoleon' and 'The Aryan Papers' (a holocaust film), but these were not made. He also played an important role in the conception of 'AI: Artificial Intelligence', which was made after his death by Steven Spielberg.

The Independent Force was established by the Royal Air Force on 6 June 1918 to conduct a strategic bombing campaign against Germany, concentrating on strategic industries, communications and the morale of the civilian population. The Independent Force was formed out of the Royal Flying Corp's Forty-First Wing which commenced operations in October 1917. This initiative was partly in response to German airship and aeroplane raids on England but it also built upon earlier, small scale attempts at strategic bombing by the Royal Naval Air Service and the Royal Flying Corps. As its name implied, it operated independently from the land battle and struck at targets in central Germany including Cologne, Stuttgart, Frankfurt, Bonn, and Mannheim. It was also intended to operate independently of the control of the Allied Supreme Commander, Marshal Foch, although this was later changed.

The Independent Force was commanded, reluctantly at first, by Major-General Hugh Trenchard who was gradually converted to the idea of strategic bombing by the operations of the Independent Force. The squadrons were based on airfields in the Nancy region, well to the south of the British sector of the Front Line. Although the effort appears miniscule compared to later bombing campaigns, four day and five night bomber squadrons dropped just 550 tons of bombs during 239 raids between 6 June and 10 November 1918, the effect on the German war effort was remarkable. The main targets were railways, blast furnaces, chemical factories that produced poison gas, other factories, and barracks to which had to be added airfields in an effort to reduce attrition from enemy fighter aircraft.

The effect on morale was out of all proportion to the size of the bomber force or the material damage caused and the air raids resulted in the movement of German air defence units away from the Front Line. Trenchard ordered statistics and records to be kept to demonstrate the work of the Independent Force and the role of strategic bombing in modern war.

The Independent Force was established by the Royal Air Force on 6 June 1918 to conduct a strategic bombing campaign against Germany, concentrating on strategic industries, communications and the morale of the civilian population. The Independent Force was formed out of the Royal Flying Corp's Forty-First Wing which commenced operations in October 1917. This initiative was partly in response to German airship and aeroplane raids on England but it also built upon earlier, small scale attempts at strategic bombing by the Royal Naval Air Service and the Royal Flying Corps. As its name implied, it operated independently from the land battle and struck at targets in central Germany including Cologne, Stuttgart, Frankfurt, Bonn, and Mannheim. It was also intended to operate independently of the control of the Allied Supreme Commander, Marshal Foch, although this was later changed.

The Independent Force was commanded, reluctantly at first, by Major-General Hugh Trenchard who was gradually converted to the idea of strategic bombing by the operations of the Independent Force. The squadrons were based on airfields in the Nancy region, well to the south of the British sector of the Front Line. Although the effort appears miniscule compared to later bombing campaigns, four day and five night bomber squadrons dropped just 550 tons of bombs during 239 raids between 6 June and 10 November 1918, the effect on the German war effort was remarkable. The main targets were railways, blast furnaces, chemical factories that produced poison gas, other factories, and barracks to which had to be added airfields in an effort to reduce attrition from enemy fighter aircraft.

The effect on morale was out of all proportion to the size of the bomber force or the material damage caused and the air raids resulted in the movement of German air defence units away from the Front Line. Trenchard ordered statistics and records to be kept to demonstrate the work of the Independent Force and the role of strategic bombing in modern war.

Gilbert Blount was an English Catholic architect born in 1819 and active from about 1840-70. He received his earliest training as a civil engineer under Isambard Kingdom Brunel (c 1825-28) for whom he worked as a superintendent of the Thames Tunnel works. After a period in the office of Sydney Smirke, Blount was appointed as architect to Cardinal Wiseman, the Catholic Archbishop of Westminster.

Blount's mature work coincided with the resurgence of Catholic church building in England. His activity as an architect was largely in service of the need for new churches and related ecclesiastical institutions.

The Transport History Collection consists largely of two substantial bequests relating to British railway history, namely the Clinker collection and the Garnett collection. Charles Ralph Clinker was born at Rugby in 1906 and joined the Great Western Railway from school in 1923 as a passenger train runner. By the time of the outbreak of World War Two he had risen to become liaison officer for the four major railway companies with Southern Command HQ, and as such was involved in the planning and execution of the Dunkirk evacuation in 1940 and the D-Day Landings in 1944. He left railway service in 1946 and devoted the rest of his life to research and lecturing on railway history, a taste which he had acquired when seconded to assist E. T. MacDermot in the preparation of his History of the Great Western Railway (London, 1964), and which Clinker subsequently revised for publication in 1982. Clinker wrote numerous books and pamphlets on railway history; his Clinker's Register of closed passenger stations and goods depots in England, Scotland and Wales, 1830-1977 (1963, revised 1978) is widely regarded as his magnum opus. He died in 1983.

David Garnett was born near Warrington in 1909 and as young man qualified as a chartered electrical engineer, soon afterwards completing his training at the Brush works in Loughborough. He then worked at the lift manufacturer Waygood-Otis, and during World War Two served with the National Fire Service, then at the Admiralty. In the 1950s he began to build a collection of railway and other maps which at the time of his death in 1984 was one of the finest such collections in the country.

Chris Wookey was born on 2 Aug 1957 and was a student at Brunel University, 1975-1979, obtaining an honours degree in Applied Biochemistry. He was a keen railway photographer and Chairman of the Brunel University Railway Society for two years. After leaving Brunel he taught Chemistry for almost ten years at Ryden's School in Walton-on-Thames. He died in 1989.

The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery (NHNN) has been described as the "cradle of British Neurology". It was founded in 1860 for the alleviation initially of epilepsy and paralysis and its early physicians included John Hughlings Jackson (1835-1911), Sir David Ferrier (1843-1928), Sir William Gowers (1845-1911), and Sir Victor Horsley (1857-1916). The National Hospital was amalgamated with Maida Vale Hospital in 1948, and the Maida Vale Hospital archives are also housed in the collection. The National Hospital now forms part of the University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust.

The National Gallery houses the national collection of Western European painting from the 13th to the 19th centuries. The Gallery's aim is to care for the collection, to enhance it for future generations, primarily by acquisition, and to study it, while encouraging access to the pictures for the education and enjoyment of the widest possible public now and in the future.

The Gallery was established in 1824 when the Government purchased the picture collection of the late banker, John Julius Angerstein. The collection of 38 paintings was placed on public display at Angerstein’s house in Pall Mall. The Gallery was managed by the Keeper, William Seguier, who reported to a 'Committee of six gentlemen'. Both the Keeper and the Committee (which later evolved into the Board of Trustees) were appointed by the Treasury but their exact responsibilities were left undefined. Dissatisfaction with this situation and public criticism of the Gallery’s management led to the appointment of a Select Committee of the House of Commons in 1853. Its report resulted in the reform of the Gallery’s administration as defined in a Treasury Minute of 27 March 1855. The minute created a new post of Director with wide powers to acquire paintings for the collection. The Director was assisted by a Keeper who managed the day-to-day affairs of the Gallery. The Board of Trustees was retained ‘to keep up a connexion between cultivated lovers of art and the institution, and to form an indirect channel of communication [with] the Government.’ The reforms improved the administration of the Gallery and, from this time on, annual reports were presented to the Treasury detailing the management of the Gallery and Collection, including pictures purchased and cleaned or repaired. This system of governance continued until 1894 when the balance of power shifted in favour of the Board of Trustees following the so-called Rosebery Minute that altered the Gallery’s constitution. This did not affect the two acts of parliament passed during the 19th century that specifically related to the Gallery and concerned de-accessioning and loans: the National Gallery Act 1856 and the National Gallery (Loan) Act 1883.

In 1897 the National Gallery assumed responsibility for the newly opened Tate Gallery. In the years that followed the division of the national collection between the two galleries was vigorously debated and led to a committee of inquiry headed by Lord Curzon. The ensuing Curzon Report of 1915 recommended that the Tate should house the collection of British and modern foreign art while the National Gallery should retain the collection of Old Master paintings. The Tate became partially independent from the National Gallery in 1917 when it acquired its own Board of Trustees; however, it was not until 1955 and the implementation of the National Gallery and Tate Gallery Act 1954 that the Tate became fully independent. The post-war period also saw an increase in the range of activities carried out by the Gallery and a growing professionalisation of those activities. In the late 1980s responsibility for managing the buildings was transferred to the Gallery and it acquired the freehold of the site in 1992. In the second half of the 20th century the Gallery developed a range of specialised departments: Conservation, Scientific, Curatorial, Framing, Education, Photographic, Library and Archive, Art Handling, Audio-Visual, Development, Finance, Human Resources, Buildings, Design, Digital Media, Marketing, Exhibitions, Information, Information Systems, Press, Registrars, Visitor Services and Security. The governance of the Gallery was further changed by the Museums and Galleries Act 1992 which incorporated the Board of Trustees and provides the current constitution of the National Gallery.

The Society has its origins in a series of meetings convened at the beginning of 1807 by four amateur mineral enthusiasts - physician William Babington, pharmaceutical chemist William Allen and the Quaker brothers William and Richard Phillips - to organise the publication of Jacques-Louis, Comte de Bournon's monograph on mineralogy. Meeting in Babington's house the group, along with ten other friends who were also active in London's flourishing scientific scene, resolved to each contribute the sum of 50 pounds to cover the cost of the monograph's publication. (Published in the three volumes as 'Traite complet de la Chaux Carbonatee et de l'Arragonite', in 1808.)

Having enjoyed the meetings so much, many of the group continued to hold mineralogical discussions at Babington's house in Aldermanbury, London, usually at 7am before the physician began his rounds at Guy's Hospital. Other interested parties also joined the meetings and on the 13 November 1807, the new society was inaugurated at a dinner at the Freemasons Tavern, Great Queen Street, Covent Garden (the meetings being moved from breakfast to dinner time at the suggestion of Humphry Davy).

The minutes of the meeting record that there were thirteen founder members: Arthur Aikin (1773-1854), William Allen (1770-1843), William Babington (1756-1833), Humphry Davy (1778-1829), Comte Jacques-Louis de Bournon (1751-1825), James Franck (1768-1843), George Bellas Greenough (1778-1855), Richard Knight (1768-1844), James Laird (1779-1841), James Parkinson (1755-1824), William Hasledine Pepys (1775-1856), Richard Phillips (1778-1851) and William Phillips (1773-1828). The meeting resolved 'That there be forthwith instituted a Geological Society for the purpose of making geologists acquainted with each other, of stimulating their zeal, of inducing them to adopt one nomenclature, of facilitating the communications of new facts and of ascertaining what is known in their science and what remains to be discovered.' These aims were incorporated in the first constitution of the Society, formally adopted at a meeting on 1 January 1808.

Soon after its foundation the Society began to accumulate a library and a collection of minerals, rocks and fossils. In 1809 the Society moved into rented premises at 4 Garden Court, Temple, and in 1810 to 3 Lincoln's Inn Fields, where it shared larger premises with the Medical and Chirurgical Society, another society which Babington co-founded.

On 1 June 1810 the Society's first Trustees were appointed and later in the same month, 14 June, the first meeting of the Council took place. The Council resolved that the most important communications made to the Society should be published. Accordingly the first volume of the 'Transactions of the Geological Society' was issued in 1811.

With the increase in membership and activities of the Society it was found necessary to appoint the first permanent officer, Thomas Webster, in 1812. Although only part time, his duties included care of the Society's Library and Museum collections as well as those of draughtsman and secretary to the Council and Committees. The continual growth in the membership and of the collections of maps, sections and mineral specimens necessitated a further move in 1816 to 20 Bedford Street, Covent Garden.

In 1824 the Council decided to apply for a Royal Charter in order to allow it to bestow fellowships of the Society. The charter was granted on 23 April 1825 and the Rev William Buckland, Arthur Aikin, John Bostock MD, George Bellas Greenough and Henry Warburton were nominated as the first Fellows. At the following meeting of Council, the other 367 Society members were also granted Fellow status. Ironically many of these new Fellows, such as Greenough, held republican views hence why 'Royal' was never adopted into the Society's name.

The Society continued to meet at 20 Bedford Street until 1828 when it moved to apartments in Somerset House, Strand, which had recently been rebuilt by the Government for use as public offices and to house the Royal Academy and the Royal Society. The Society's apartments, including the two rooms of the museum, were fitted out to designs of Decimus Burton, architect of the Temperate House at Kew Gardens and Fellow of the Geological Society. The first meeting at Somerset House was held on 7 November 1828, and the Society remained there until removal to the present apartments at Burlington House in 1874.

The care of the Society's large mineral and fossil collections was always problematic. The Museum's first Keeper, Thomas Webster, was unhappy with the work load and also unpopular with the other Fellows. He was replaced in 1827 by the first official Curator, William Lonsdale, whose health broke down from overwork in 1836. During the following nine years there were another five curators who all resigned. In 1869, it was decided to abandon attempts to form a comprehensive collection, instead specimens should directly relate to papers read at the Society. Although the move to Burlington House meant that the collection was thoroughly weeded and catalogued again, after 1876 (after another resignation) the collection received only cursory attention. A Special General Meeting was called by a group of palaeontologists in 1901 to try and force the Council to take better care of the Museum. However their plan backfired and instead a motion was carried that the Museum should be disposed of. The contents were divided in 1911 between what we now know as the Natural History Museum and the Museum of Practical Geology (part of the Geological Survey) in Jermyn Street. The British Museum (now Natural History Museum) received the foreign specimens, while the domestic collection was given to the other institution.

The Society officially started its existence as a dining club but with the steady increase in the number of members (341 in 1815 to 400 in 1818), this aspect of its activities soon fell into abeyance. It was revived in 1824 with the foundation of the Geological Society Club which continues to hold dinners to the present day.

Today, the Geological Society of London is the UK national professional body for geoscientists. It provides a wide range of professional and scientific support to its c 9500 Fellows, about 2000 of whom live overseas. As well as boasting one of the most important geological libraries in the world, the Geological Society is a global leader in Earth science publishing, and is renowned for its cutting edge science meetings. It is a vital forum in which Earth scientists from a broad spectrum of disciplines and environments can exchange ideas, and is an important communicator of geoscience to government, media, those in education and the broader public.

The first rules of the Society, dating from 1808, called for an annual general meeting at the end of June, at which officers were to be elected, accounts presented and a subscription raised. In 1811 it was agreed that an anniversary dinner should be held on the day following the AGM. By 1818 the AGM and Anniversary Dinner were being held in February but are now held in June. A presidential address was first read by W H Fitton in 1828, and from 1835 the AGM included the presentation of medals and other awards.

The first step towards marking the Centenary of the founding of the Geological Society of London was the motion of Horace Bolingbroke Woodward, presented before Council on 9 November 1904, to consider the appointment of a 'Record Committee' to oversee the compilation of a history of Society. The motion was passed, and the resulting work published as: Woodward, H B. 'The History of the Geological Society of London', London: Longmans, Green and Co, 1908.

The second step was the re-election of the experienced Sir Archibald Geikie as President of the Society for the sessions 1906-1908, in view of the Centenary (he had previously served as President between 1890-1892). Much of the preliminary arrangements for the Centenary were discussed by the Record Committee during its meetings, but Council additionally constituted a 'Centenary Committee' (which included members of the Record Committee) to formally draw up a programme and organise the proposed event. Although the Society was officially founded on the 13 November 1807, it was thought that the end of September would be more convenient for the majority of colonial and foreign guests. In all, over 900 individuals were invited to participate in the Centenary celebrations of which 307 actually attended.

The official Centenary celebrations were held between 26 September-3 October 1907, however a series of preliminary field excursions to places such as the Lake District, Lyme Regis and the Forest of Dean were held in the preceding week. The Centenary celebrations were opened by a formal reception held at the Institution of Civil Engineers, at 11am on Thursday 26 September, where congratulatory telegrams from individuals and organisations from all over the world were read out. This was followed by a Presidential address at 3pm, and the day brought to a close by a dinner at the Whitehall Rooms, Hotel Metropole where further speeches were given. A Conversazione was organised for the Friday but short excursions and visits to places of interest were also available over the next few days to those who wished them. The Society's apartments were opened to the visitors: the Museum was converted to a conversation, writing and smoking room; the Council Room became a ladies' drawing room; and the Meeting Room was used as cloak room and dressing room. The Geological Society Club also hosted a dinner to entertain the foreign and colonial delegates on the evening of Friday 27 September. The celebrations were rounded off by a visit to Oxford and Cambridge Universities, where a number of the foreign delegates received honorary degrees.

From the earliest years of the Society, small committees were formed with specific organisational remits. The Committee of Trustees, appointed at the end of 1807, was the first, its task was to draw up the rules for the regulation of the fledgling Society and instructions to the honorary members to accompany notice of their election. When the Council was established in June 1810, the various 'standing' (that is permanent) committees tasked with overseeing the management of the Society's apartments, maps, publications, etc were formally appointed by and therefore reported to this senior body. Additionally 'Special' committees were formed on an ad hoc basis to deal with a specific issue or project, such as the refurbishment of the Society's apartments or the appointment of new staff, which could not necessarily be dealt with in the day to day business of one of the standing committees.

As the Society grew in size and complication, the 'Special' committees were more likely to be established as permanent committees of their own, however they would report to the hierarchy of the specific major standing committee which had appointed it rather than to Council.

With various reorganisations over the years and adaptations to modern management requirements, the names and functions of the standing committees has been frequently subject to change, with committees merging or being replaced by others.

Up until the late 1990s, the Elected Officers (ie Treasurer, Foreign Secretary, Honorary Secretaries, etc) were far more involved in the day to day running of the Geological Society. Depending on their office and interest, each would act as chair on particular committees.

Historically the Assistant Secretary, later Permanent Secretary, was the first point of contact with the Society (besides the President and members of Council) and as the post holder also acted as editor of the Journal and occasionally the Librarian and Curator, the majority of the day to day correspondence and administration came through his office. By the late 1960s, the role had developed into what is now the Executive Secretary (essentially the Chief Executive of the Society), and although the postholder no longer has editorial duties, the office is still the central administrative department of the organisation. However it should be noted as some functions of the Society have developed, specific departments have been established to take over the running of some of these tasks, such as the Conference Office which now organises the scientific meetings. The Executive Secretary still ultimately oversees these subsidiary departments as well as sitting on most of the Society's major standing committees, therefore the Executive Secretary series still reflects most of the Society's functions.

Kenneth Oakley was born on 7 April 1911 at Amersham, Buckinghamshire. He attended Challoner's Grammar School and University College School before enrolling at University College London where he graduated with a first class honours BSc in geology (with anthropology as a subsidiary subject) in 1933, as well as gaining the Rosa Morison memorial medal. Oakley began his PhD at the University of London in 1933, but did not complete his research until 1938 due to his appointment to the geological survey in 1934 and his post as an assistant keeper in geology (palaeontology) at the Natural History Museum the following year. The Natural History Museum would be where Oakley spent the rest of his working life, except for a war service secondment to the geological survey.

Oakley became a Fellow of the Society in 1934, gaining the Wollaston Fund award in 1941 and the Prestwich Medal in 1963.

In 1955, Oakley became head of the new sub-department of anthropology within the department of anthropology and held the title of deputy keeper (anthropology) from 1959 to 1969. However he developed multiple sclerosis, which forced his premature retirement. Although eventually confined to a wheelchair, Oakley continued to study and publish work on anthropology until his death on 2 November 1981.

Oakley's major area of interest was in early hominid fossils, particularly the use of technologies to date finds. In the 1940s, he began work with various colleagues on methods of dating bone by analysis of fluorine content. One of the early results of this technique, was finding that a supposedly Middle Pleistocene human skeleton from Galley Hill, Swanscombe, was actually much younger than the gravels in which it was found. This fluorine dating method would lead to, arguably, Oakley's most important contribution to science - the exposure of the Piltdown fraud.

At an Ordinary Meeting of the Geological Society, held on 18 December 1912, Charles Dawson and Arthur Smith Woodward, Keeper of Geology at the Natural History Museum, presented the first paper on the discoveries found in a shallow gravel pit at Barkham Manor, near Piltdown in Sussex. According to the two men, they had found an early hominid skull and jaw along with other mammalian fossils which Woodward had dated to around 400,000 years old. The large cranial capacity of the skull alongside an ape like jaw saw the discovery being hailed as the missing link between humans and primates - Piltdown Man.

In 1953, using the fluorine dating techniques which had been developed, Oakley along with colleagues C R Hoskins, J S Weiner and W E Le Gros Clark, tested the Piltdown remains and found that the skull fragments were not as ancient as originally claimed. The cranium was around 500 years old and the jaw came from an orangutan, but its teeth had been filed down to mimic a human like wear pattern.

Sir Jethro Justinian Harris Teall was born on 5 January 1849, the only child of Jethro Teall, at Northleach, Gloucestershire. He attended Berkeley Villa School followed by St John's College Cambridge, where he turned from mathematics to geology and was taught by Thomas Bonney and Adam Sedgwick. He was the first recipient of the Sedgwick prize for geology in 1874, after which he became a fellow (1875) and taught under the university extension scheme, as well as carrying out petrographic research.

He was particularly interested in metamorphic minerals and the crystallization of magmas, leading him to produce his celebrated work 'British Petrography' (1888), which was partially illustrated by his wife Harriet. In 1888 he joined the Geological Survey of Great Britain, becoming its director from 1901 to 1914, when he retired. During this time he extended the Survey's activities and enhanced its utility and educational value.

Teall was elected Fellow of the Geological Society in 1873, and spent time as secretary (1893-1897) and president (1900-1902). He also received the Bigsby and the Wollaston medals (1889 and 1905). Other recognitions include the presidency of the Geologists' Association (1898-1900), Fellowship of the Royal Society (1890), the Delesse prize from the Académie des Sciences (1907), and honorary doctorates from Oxford, Cambridge, Dublin, and St Andrews, in addition to his knighthood (1916). He died on 2 July 1924.

Janet Vida Watson was born in London on 1 September 1923, the daughter of D. M. S. Watson FRS, the palaeontologist, and K. M. Watson (née Parker) D.Sc. She was educated privately and at South Hampstead High School, a school chosen by her parents for the high quality of its science teaching for girls. She studied for her B.Sc. in General Science at Reading University 1940-1943, graduating with first class honours. Watson spent 1943-1944 working at the National Institute for Research in Dairying at Reading and 1944-1945 teaching biology at Wentworth School, Bournemouth. In 1945 she entered Imperial College London to study for a B.Sc. in Geology. She graduated in 1947, again with first class honours.

In 1946, on the advice of Professor H. H. Read, she undertook a mapping project in the Highlands of Scotland, initiating her lasting interest in Highland geology. On graduation she registered as a Ph.D. student supported by a Department of Scientific and Industrial Research studentship and, again on the advice of Professor Read, studied the Lewisian complex in the Scourie area of north west Scotland. At the same time John Sutton, another postgraduate student of Read, was working on the Lewisian complex in the Torridon area. Watson and Sutton reached very similar conclusions and the results of their work were written up in a joint paper. Watson and Sutton married in June 1949.

After receiving her Ph.D. in 1949 Watson was awarded a three year Senior Research Fellowship by the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851. In 1952 she took up a Research Assistantship under H. H. Read at Imperial College, a post she held until 1973 when she was appointed Senior Lecturer. She was employed on a part-time basis 1956-1974, having also to look after her elderly parents and parents-in-law. In 1974 Watson was appointed to a personal Chair in Geology at Imperial College and on her retirement in 1983 became Professor emeritus and Senior Research Fellow.

Watson's professional and public responsibilities also included service as President of Section C of the British Association 1972, membership of the National Water Council 1973-1976 and service on project 86 of the International Geological Correlation Programme surveying the south western border of the East European platform. In connection with the latter she made a number of visits to East Germany in the 1970s and 1980s.

Watson's first geological research was undertaken as an undergraduate at Imperial College on the Moine metamorphic rocks of the Strath Kildonan area in Scotland. This was followed by her postgraduate work with John Sutton on the Lewisian granite of north west Scotland. This research, which identified two successive Pre-Cambrian tectonic provinces, initiated a new stage in studies of Lewisian rocks and Watson continued to work on Lewisian rocks during her tenure of the 1851 Senior Research Fellowship. From this developed a more general study of the geology of northern Scotland, with which Sutton was involved, but Watson moved on to study of the evolution of the Scottish Caledonides. This research was concentrated on the north east Scottish coast (Banffshire). In the later 1960s Watson returned to work on the Lewisian rocks of Scotland (with particular reference to the Outer Hebrides), and she and her research students collaborated with the Highlands Unit of the Institute of Geological Sciences (IGS, later British Geological Survey) on geological mapping of the Outer Hebrides. The late 1970s saw Watson move into new fields of research. She studied ore-forming processes as an aspect of Pre-Cambrian crustal evolution and from 1977 was involved with joint work with Jane Plant of the IGS on the regional distribution of uranium in relation to the structural evolution of northern Scotland. This work took the well-known technique of stream sediment sampling and used it for investigation of fundamental geochemical problems. In addition from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s Watson also undertook collaborative research with IGS staff on the effects of diagenesis and hydrothermal activity in the post-Caledonian evolution of Scotland.

In recognition of her contributions to geology the Geological Society of London awarded her the Moiety of the Lyell Fund (jointly with Sutton) in 1954, the Bigsby Medal (again jointly with Sutton) in 1965 and the Lyell Medal in 1973. From 1982 to 1984 she was President of the Geological Society, the first woman to hold this office. In 1979 Watson was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society and was appointed a Vice President of the Society in 1983.