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Richard von Krafft-Ebing was born in Mannheim, Germany, on 14 August 1840; his father was a civil servant of the Grand Duchy of Baden. Krafft-Ebing went to school and university at Heidelberg, where he studied Medicine. His maternal grandfather, Anton Mittermaier, held the chair of Criminal Law there and is considered to have had a significant effect on his grandson's choice of specialisation. After qualifying in 1863, Krafft-Ebing obtained the post of assistant physician at the Illenau asylum near Baden Baden. He was to remain in regular contact with this institution for the remainder of his life, and particularly with two of his former colleagues there, Heinrich Schüle and Wilhelm Erb. After leaving Illenau in 1869, Krafft-Ebing practised as a nerve doctor in Baden Baden, and after military service in the Franco-Prussian War, as director of a local electrotherapeutic institute. Following a brief period as adjunct professor of Psychiatry at the university of Strasbourg in 1872, Krafft-Ebing was appointed to his first post in the Austrian domains, as medical superintendent of Feldhof, the newly established mental asylum of the province of Styria, and to an associated adjunct chair of Psychiatry at the university of Graz.

In 1880 Krafft-Ebing resigned the asylum post to concentrate on teaching and research. He was already a profilic author, specialising in forensic psychiatry, and his first major work, Lehrbuch der gerichtlichen Psychopathologie (1875) was the first textbook in the German-speaking world to concentrate on the interface between psychiatry and the law. With his three-volume Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie auf klinischer Grundlage (1879-80) he established his reputation as a leader in clinical psychiatry. In 1882 Krafft-Ebing was made full professor and five years later Neurology was added to his chair. In 1889 he obtained one of the chairs of Psychiatry at Vienna; then in 1892 he succeeded Theodor Meynert in the second chair, which was associated with a small psychiatric clinic in the university's general hospital. At the same time Krafft-Ebing became president of the Verein für Psychiatrie und forensische Pyschologie, the leading professional organisation for psychiatrists in Austria. In 1886 Krafft-Ebing published Psychopathia sexualis, the work for which he would become best known. In effect this was a catalogue of case histories of abnormal sexual fantasies and practices drawn from numerous sources. Although intended as a manual for the medical and legal professions it soon gained a wider readership, and as one edition followed another more and longer case histories were included, and a greater proportion of the cases described were Krafft-Ebing's own. To some extent the book itself generated the case histories, as patients read it and were moved to correspond with its author, and sometimes visit him. The work ultimately ran to 17 German-language editions, and was translated into at least 5 foreign languages (earliest English edition 1892). In addition to his institutional roles, Krafft-Ebing practiced privately. In 1886 he founded a sanatorium in the suburbs of Graz, Mariagrün, for wealthy patients suffering from a range of nervous disorders, especially neurasthenia. It was in this private sphere that Krafft-Ebing found greater professional and scientific satisfaction, and he resigned his chair at Vienna in early 1902 to concentrate on writing and the sanatorium in Graz. However, his health was not good and he died on 22 December 1902, aged sixty-two, just after completing the 12th edition of Psychopathia sexualis.

Ralph Ambrose Kekwick was born on 11 November 1908 at Woodford Wells in Essex. He was educated at the Leyton County High School for Boys and University College London, from where he graduated with First Class Honours B.Sc. in Chemistry in 1928. He remained at University College to undertake research, initially in physical chemistry under F.G. Donnan, then moving to study physical biochemistry under J.C. Drummond during which time he worked in close association with R.K. Cannan. In 1930 he was awarded a Bayliss-Sterling Memorial Scholarship and was also appointed Demonstrator in Biochemistry at University College. In 1931-1933 Kekwick held a Commonwealth Fund Fellowship. This enabled him to spend two years in the United States, studying with R.K. Cannan (who had by then moved to the New York University College of Medicine) and then researching problems of permeability at Princeton University and the Marine Biological Laboratories at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Kekwick returned to the UK in 1933 to take up a post as Lecturer at University College London where he remained to 1937.

In 1935 Kekwick travelled to Sweden as a Rockefeller Foundation Fellow to work under T. Svedberg at the Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Uppsala. This proved to be a key moment in Kekwick's career as he was introduced to the ultracentrifuge and electrophoresis apparatus, both developed at Uppsala. The ultracentrifuge, designed by Svedberg and colleagues, was used for the study of protein molecules in blood plasma. It separated out protein molecules to leave a pure protein preparation, for example plasma albumin and globulins while the rate of sedimentation could be measured to give a sedimentation co-efficient (a characteristic property of the protein). This allowed the molecular weight to be calculated and the proteins identified. The electrophoresis apparatus, designed by Tiselius, worked through the measurement of the negative electrical charge of proteins. As the size of the charge varies according to the protein's chemical structure, when an electrical charge was passed through a solution, proteins with a greater positive charge migrated towards the positive pole more rapidly. As with the ultracentrifuge this allowed the separation of different proteins in blood plasma and the diagnosis and monitoring of conditions in which the ratios of the blood plasma proteins were abnormal. These techniques contributed to general understanding of the part the proteins played in biological activity, the importance of fibrinogen in blood clotting, the role of gamma globulin in combatting infection and the role of albumin in maintaining the correct volume of blood. It also allowed for the diagnosis of medical conditions in which ratios of proteins in blood plasma were abnormal. Following this visit, in 1937 Kekwick was awarded a research grant from the Medical Research Council for electrophoretic and ultracentrifuge investigations on pathological and immune sera at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine. He was taken on the Scientific Staff of the Lister Institute in 1940.

During the Second World War Kekwick remained at the Lister Institute undertaking experimental and production work for the Medical Research Council's Blood Transfusion Research Committee. With A.S. McFarlane he devised a process to clarify outdated blood plasma so as to render it suitable for transfusion. He was appointed Head of the Lister's Biophysics Division in 1943 and he and his team worked on methods of freeze-drying plasma and then of separating out proteins in blood plasma. At the end of the war the MRC established a Blood Products Laboratory at the Lister Institute's station at Elstree, Hertfordshire. Kekwick worked closely with this Laboratory and was an adviser but continued his own research at the Lister Institute in Chelsea. He continued working on blood plasma analysis with ultracentrifuge and electrophoretic techniques and practical improvements in blood transfusion processes. In the 1950s he developed a method of fractionating out a fibrinogen fraction rich in Factor VIII, the anti-haemophilic globulin. This lead to the first clinical use of this Factor in 1957 and the establishment of a national laboratory dedicated to plasma fractionation. Kekwick's association with University College London continued. In 1954 he was appointed Reader in Chemical Biophysics and appointed to a personal Chair in Biophysics in 1966 (Emeritus and Fellow 1971). In addition to his pioneering work in blood plasma research, Kekwick contributed to developments in this area through his service on a number of Medical Research Council committees concerned with blood transfusion, haemophilia and hypogammaglobulinaemia. He served on the Committee of the British Biophysical Society 1967-1970. Kekwick was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society in 1966.

Sir Thomas Lewis was an eminent cardiologist, and a founder of what is now recognised as clinical research. Born, 1881; Entered University College Cardiff, 1898; BSc pass degree double honours, 1901; MB BS London (Gold Medal), 1902; Entered University College Hospital Medical School, 1902; Elected member of Physiological Society, 1904; DSc Wales, 1905; House Surgeon to Thomas Barlow, 1905-1906; Period in Berlin, 1906; Work in EH Starling's Laboratory, University College London, 1907-1908; Medical Registrar, Seamen's Hospital, Greenwich, 1907-1912; Out-Patient Physician, City of London Hospital, 1907-1913; Private practice, Wimpole Street, 1909-1916; Founded journal Heart, 1909; Appointed first Beit Memorial Fellow, 1910; Lecturer in Cardiac Pathology University College Hospital Medical School, 1911; Assistant Physician, University College Hospital (UCH), 1912; Elected FRCP, 1913; Visited USA, 1914; Appointed Physician Medical Research Committee, 1916; Directed clinical services of Military Heart Hospitals at Hampstead and Colchester, work on 'effort syndrome', 1916-1919; Croonian Lecturer, Royal Society, 1917; FRS, 1918; Consulting Physician to Eastern Command, 1918; Consulting Physician to Ministry of Pensions, 1919; Appointed full Physician at UCH, 1919; Founded Medical Research Society, 1930; First Aid Commandant, Rickmansworth, 1939-1944; died, 1945.

Dr Margaret Lowenfeld was a paediatrician who became a pioneer of child psychology and psychotherapy. Her outstanding contributions sprang from her recognition that play is an important activity in children's development. She invented non-verbal techniques that enabled children to express themselves, including The Lowenfeld World Technique and Lowenfeld Mosaics. The former involved the use of sand trays and miniature toys. The child guidance clinic Lowenfeld established in the late 1920s in London's Notting Hill developed into the Institute for Child Psychology.

Further biographical information can be found on the Dr Margaret Lowenfeld Trust website at http://www.lowenfeld.org/Lowenfeld/default.asp.

George Macdonald CMG, MD, FRCP, Ch.B, DPH, DTM (1903-1967) was a Professor of Tropical Hygiene, 1946-1967, and Director of the Ross Institute, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 1945-1967. He was an eminent malariologist who is particularly noted for his work on mathematical modelling of the epidemiology of malaria and other vector-borne diseases, in particular schistosomiasis. He was relatively early in perceiving the value of computer analysis in this area.

Joan Malleson was an important figure in ALRA and the FPA/North Kensington Clinic, she undertook pioneering early work in sex counselling. She died in 1956.

McIlwain was born on 20 December 1912 in Newcastle upon Tyne. He was educated at King's College, Durham University 1930-1936 (B.Sc. in Chemistry 1934, M.Sc., Ph.D. 1936) and spent the year 1936-1937 at Queen's College, Oxford researching the organic chemistry of natural products. During the period 1937-1945 he was Leverhulme Research Fellow in the Medical Research Council (MRC) Department of Bacterial Chemistry, and subsequently member of the scientific staff of the MRC, at the Middlesex Hospital Medical School and subsequently at Sheffield University. During the period 1945-1947 he was Lecturer in Biochemistry, Sheffield University and member of the scientific staff of the MRC and of the Council's Unit for Cell Metabolism, Department of Biochemistry, Sheffield University. In 1948 he moved to the Maudsley Hospital as Senior Biochemist in the Teaching and Research Laboratories and subsequently Senior Lecturer and then Reader in Biochemistry in the University of London at the Institute of Psychiatry. In 1954 he was appointed Professor of Biochemistry in the University of London at the Institute of Psychiatry (Professor Emeritus 1980). He was then Visiting Professor, Department of Biochemistry, St Thomas's Hospital Medical School, London, continuing research supported by the MRC, 1980-1986. After moving to Shropshire in 1986 McIlwain was based for his residual academic activities at the University of Birmingham Medical School.

McIlwain's early research career in association with P.G. Fildes at the Middlesex Hospital and H.A. Krebs in Sheffield focused on nutritional factors controlling the growth of bacteria and synthetic bacterial antimetabolites as chemotherapeutic agents for treating bacterial infection. His post-war move to the Maudsley Hospital and the Institute of Psychiatry was a marked change of direction. Here he organised a department dealing with biochemical research on the nervous system and the teaching of neurochemistry to postgraduate medical students. His research and teaching programmes, his textbooks and his active role in the establishment of the Journal of Neurochemistry (1956) and the International Society for Neurochemistry (1967) distinguish him as one of the founding fathers of the modern discipline. In retirement he devoted much time to his interests in the history of science and neurochemistry in particular. He died on 14 September 1992.

Born, 1884; Educated at Barnard Castle School, 1898-1902; Emmanuel College Cambridge, 1902; Research student, Emmanuel, working under Gowland Hopkins, 1906; Demonstrator in Department of Physiology, St Thomas's Hospital, 1909-1911; MA,MB(Cantab), 1910; Beit Memorial Fellowship, 1910-1912; Chair of Physiology of the University of London in the King's (subsequently Queen Elizabeth's) College for Women, 1913-1920; Married May Tweedy, 1914; MD (Cantab), 1915; Work on the absorption of alcohol, under the MRC for the Liquor Control Board, c 1918; Chair of Pharmacology at the University of Sheffield, 1920-1933; FRS, 1925, FRCP, 1928; Chairman, League of Nations Nutrition and Vitamins Standardisation Commission, 1931; Appointed Secretary to the Medical Research Council, 1933; Fullerian Professor of the Royal Institution, 1936-1937; KCB, 1937; Honorary Physician to King George VI , 1937-1941; Chairman of the Advisory Medical Panel of the British Council, 1942; Work on the role of agene in flour in the causation of canine hysteria, 1946; Visited South Africa to advise on medical research, 1948; Attended African Scientific Regional Congress, 1949; Retired as Secretary to the Medical Research Council, 1949; Visited India to advise on medical research policy, 1950-1951; Visit to Australia and New Zealand to advise on medical research, 1951; died, 1955.

May Tweedy was born in 1882, educated at Hampstead and Bromley High Schools, and then went to Girton College, Cambridge, where she pursued the Natural Science Tripos, Parts I and II, 1902-1905. She then held the post of Research Scholar and Lecturer at Bedford College London, 1906-1914. She married Edward Mellanby in 1914 and collaborated in his research throughout the rest of their lives together. Besides all the work she carried out with her husband on nutrition, she also conducted independently research into the physiology of dentition and the causes of dental disease, and was involved with a number of bodies making policy in this field. She died in 1978.

Maurice Henry Pappworth was born in 1910 in Liverpool. He studied medicine at the University of Liverpool and graduated MB ChB in 1932. From 1938-1940 he was registrar and medical tutor at the Royal Infirmary, Liverpool, where he worked with Lord Cohen of Birkenhead. In 1939 he was told he would never get a consultant's job in a Liverpool teaching hospital as he was a Jew. He was conscripted into the Royal Army Medical Corps in 1941 and served for 4 and a half years in which he rose to lieutenant colonel and included service in North Africa, Italy and Greece. After the war he was offered jobs in other areas of England but held out for a post in London in a well known hospital, an ambition he never achieved. Instead he turned to private teaching and was a freelance medical tutor from 1947-1990, specialising in preparing medical graduates for the exam for the Membership of the Royal College of Physicians (MRCP). He also had his own private practice. He maintained that teaching in British medical schools was dreadful and held regular private courses to teach doctors.

Many acknowledge Pappworth's teaching as getting them through the MRCP exam. There were occasions when half the successful MRCP candidates had been his pupils. In 1960 he published Primer of Medicine, which gained a popular reputation among medical students as a short practical guide to the art and science of diagnosis. Within 2 years there were 3 reprints and a second edition followed in 1971. Through out the 1950s and 1960s he became increasingly concerned when his postgraduate students informed him of unethical experiments that they had personally observed, and of descriptions published in medical journals of unethical experiments on patients in the UK and USA, despite informal guidelines such as Nuremberg Code. He wrote letters to the editors of journals publishing work he considered unethical, but they were often rejected for publication. Hence, he collected 14 examples of ethically dubious research, published in 1962 in a special issue of the influential quarterly The Twentieth Century. The first part of his article's title, "Human Guinea Pigs": A Warning", was used again for his later book in 1967. Human Guinea Pigs described 205 experiments in all, including examples of experiments on children, the mentally defective and prison inmates. 78 examples were from NHS hospitals. The book was particularly harsh on Hammersmith Hospital where the earliest cardiac catheterisation and liver biopsies had been carried out in Britain.

At the same time as Pappworth was exposing experiments in Britain, Henry K. Beecher was also documenting unethical research in the US, but, he was not as criticised by his medical colleagues as Pappworth was. The British medical establishment were not amused at their dirty linen being washed in public, and he was told by members to be quiet. However, within 6 months of Human Guinea Pigs being published, the Royal College of Physicians (RCP) issued a report on the ethics of clinical research. It was Pappworth's activities in the late 1950s and 1960s that led to the Royal College of Physicians British code on ethics of human experimentation. In 1972, Pappworth spoke of belonging to a select band of less than 10 who had been members of the RCP for over 35 years. Despite passing the MRCP in 1936, it took 57 years for him (it normally takes 10-15 years) to be elected Fellow in 1993. Pappworth died on October 12 1994.

Ronald MacKeith was born on 23 February 1908 as one of a twin and 11 children of a Southampton general practitioner. He was admitted to Queen's College, Oxford in 1926 and then went to St Mary's Hospital Medical School for his clinical studies, qualifying in 1932. He obtained membership of the Royal College of Physicians (MRCP) in 1941 and was elected a fellow in 1952 (FRCP). During the war he served as a medical officer in the Royal Navy and in 1941 married Elizabeth Bartrum, with whom he would have four children.

After the war he joined the staff of Guy's hospital and was appointed Children's Physician in 1948. Shortly afterwards he began a cerebral palsy clinic, which developed into the Newcomen Centre for Handicapped children in 1964, of which he was the first director. He was also during this time paediatrician to the Cassel Hospital and the Tavistock Clinic, emphasising the stong link he saw between paediatrics and child psychiatry.

One of MacKeith's most significant influences on the practice of paediatrics was his more enlightened and humane treatment of handicapped children in and out of hospital. He advocated an inter-disciplinary approach and saw the whole child and family rather than the disability alone. His primary interest remained children rather than the intricacies of rare diseases. His views are set out in books such as The Child and his Symptoms with John Apley, A New Look at Child Health with Michael Joseph and Infant Feeding and Feeding Difficulties with Chris Wood and Roy Meadow, as well as many articles and editorials in Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology and other journals.

MacKeith became associated with The Spastics Society (now SCOPE) in the early 1950s and was appointed the Director of the Medical Education and Information Unit (MEIU) in 1958. He was instrumental in developing this unit, which was closely associated with MacKeith personally and accounts for some of its papers being interspersed with MacKeith's own. MacKeith's most significant contribution as director was the foundation of a journal and renowned study groups.

The meetings organised by MacKeith (and now called the MacKeith meetings) were of 2 kinds. There were bi-ennial International Study Groups on Child Neurology and Cerebral palsy, held in Oxford, where international experts were brought together in 'workshops' to discuss specific selected topics and child neurology in general. Secondly, there were large open meetings designed for health professionals, usually devoted to a broad, practical theme and held all over the country.

The Cerebral Palsy Bulletin was founded in 1958, (from 1962 Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology) when MacKeith convinced the Society that such a publication would help them further their objectives of spreading understanding of disabilities and the special needs of those who have them and stimulating research in the area. MacKeith was also instrumental in its recognition by the American Academy of Cerebral Palsy as their official journal and remained senior editor of this and its sister publication, Little Club Clinics (from 1963 Clinics in Developmental Medicine), up until the time of his death. Editorial policy lay with the Editorial Board, which reported to the Medical Advisory Committee of the Society. He was succeeded by Martin Bax, a friend and close colleague, who remained in post until his retirement in 2003. In 1967 the Press was named Spastics International Medical Publications (SIMP), becoming MacKeith Press in 1986 and a separate wholly-owned subsidiary in 2001.

MacKeith was involved with numerous other societies and had wide ranging medical interests. For instance, he was engaged with the topic of medical education and a founder member of the Association for Medical Education and secretary then chairman of the Medical Committee of the Scientific Film Association. Medical ethics and the role of doctors in the public field was another area of interest and he was chairman of the Medical Association for Prevention of War. MacKeith founded the British Paediatric Neurology Association and British Community Paediatric Group and a member of the British Paediatric Association and the Royal Society of Medicine. He was also a keen member of the Johnson Club.

Honours included the James Spence Medal (1972), Rosen von Rosenstein Medal of the Swedish Paediatric Association (1974), the Special Merit Award of the American Academy for Cerebral Palsy (1975) and the Albrecht von Haller Medal from the University of Gottingen (1977).

MacKeith died suddenly on 30 October 1977 after being taken ill several hours earlier at home.

Marthe Louise Vogt was born on 8th September 1903. Her parents, Oskar (German-Danish) and Cécile (French) Vogt (née Mugnier) were distinguished neuro-anatomists, living in turn of the century Berlin. Marthe was educated in a liberal and intellectual environment. She received her schooling at Auguste Viktoria-Schule, Berlin. She then studied medicine and chemistry at Berlin University 1922-1927 and obtained her Doctor of Medicine degree on account of some research on the microscopical anatomy of the human brain, carried out in Berlin at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut für Hirnforschung (Kaiser William Institute for Brain Research - aka "Brain Science" although Marthe herself translates it as 'Brain Research'). Shortly afterwards she became involved in research in biochemistry under Professor Neuberg at the Kaiser William Institute (1927-1929) and then took the degree of Dr. phil. in chemistry.

For a short time Vogt worked in histological research on the normal and pathological brain. In October 1929 she started work under Professor Paul Trendelenburg at the Pharmacological Institute of Berlin University on pharmacology and endocrinology. She left the Pharmacological Institute in December 1930 for a post as research assistant at the Kaiser William Institute for Brain Research. In 1931, at age 28, she became head of its Chemical Department. Her main work there was on the pharmacology of the central nervous system, i.e. on the distribution, within the brain, of various drugs with specific central effects. Her work was made possible by the Rockefeller Foundation which equipped the new Chemical Department of the Institute where she worked until March 1935. By the early 1930s Marthe Vogt was a well established pharmacologist. However, like many other scientists of her generation she left Germany at that time and came to Britain. Departing in April 1935 on a one-year Rockefeller Travelling Fellowship, Vogt had no intention of returning to a Germany ruled by the Nazis whom she detested. She joined the British Pharmacological Society (established in 1931), along with several other German pharmacologist 'refugee scientists' such as Otto Krayer, William Feldberg, Edith Bülbring and Phillip Ellinger. Once in England Vogt worked for 6 months under leading pharmacologist Sir Henry Dale, at the National Institute for Medical Research in London, on humoral transmission of nerve impulses. This led to her co-authoring a paper with Dale and Feldberg, 'Release of Acetylcholine at Voluntary Motor Nerve Endings' published 1936 in the Journal of Physiology (Vol.86, pp.353-379). This classic paper contains the first description of release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction following stimulation of motor nerve fibres (i.e. proving that acetylcholine from nerves originating in the spinal cord triggers movement in muscles - the chemical basis of movement) The effects of denervation, transmitter depletion and the post-synaptic actions of curarine are all described. The work described in this paper contributed to Sir Henry Dale winning the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1936.

In Oct 1935 Marthe Vogt went to Cambridge and, as a Fellow of Girton, began working with Professor E B Verney, mainly on the rise in general blood pressure caused by substances liberated from the ischaemic kidney. She continued this research until 1940 with the aid of grants to Verney from the Royal Society and the Rockefeller Foundation and then the award of the Alfred Yarrow Research Fellowship of Girton College. Some experimental work during that time was concerned with the problem of the innervation of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. In 1938 she was awarded the degree of PhD (Cambridge). While at Cambridge Vogt acted as a demonstrator in the Pharmacology classes, the Physiology classes and in the Pharmacology lecture demonstrations. From 1939-1943 she was examining in the Cambridge Pharmacology examinations of medical students. From June 1941 to the end of 1946 (most of the Second World War) she was a member of staff of the College of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. In the Pharmacological Research Laboratories of the Society in London she did routine work concerned with the biological standardisation of drugs and hormones, plus research on the physiology of the suprarenal gland. Teaching activities were concerned with the supervision of post-graduate students. During this time she was also working with J H Gaddum who was also on the staff of the College. There she produced the seminal paper with William Feldberg on 'Acetylcholine Synthesis in Different Regions of the Central Nervous System' which was eventually published in 1948 in the Journal of Physiology (Vol.107, pp.372-381). The paper demonstrated the regional distribution of cholinergic systems in the brain. It provided strong evidence that acetylcholine was a transmitter in the brain and presented a chemical basis upon which drugs to combat disorders of the brain could be designed.

In January 1947 Marthe Vogt was appointed lecturer, later reader, in Pharmacology, Edinburgh University. There she also carried on with research on the suprarenal cortex as well as taking part in the teaching and research activities of the Pharmacology Laboratory. She worked there for the next 13 years. During 1949 she spent time at Columbia University, New York, as a Visiting Associate Professor (see file PP/MLV/C/21/4). In 1952, only 5 years after her appointment she was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, a distinction awarded previously to only eight other women. In 1954 Vogt published what is viewed as her most important paper, 'The concentration of sympathin in different parts of the nervous system under normal conditions and after the administration of drugs' Journal of Physiology 1954 (Vol.123, pp.451-481). This was a milestone on the mechanism of neural transmission. She observed that adrenaline and noradrenaline are heterogeneously distributed in the brain and concluded that cerebral sympathin (adrenaline and noradrenaline) was yet another chemical in the brain involved as a transmitter in the communication between brain cells. She went on to show that levels of noradrenaline in the brain could be manipulated pharmacologically, i.e. influenced by drugs that are used to treat mental illness. This fundamental discovery was the beginning of studies in the field of catecholamines (including sympathin) as transmitters in the brain. Marthe Vogt continued to make a substantial contribution to this area for many years, for example, in 1956 she published another important paper on neural transmission by demonstrating the effects of reserpine on catecholamine storage (see Journal of Neurochemistry 1956, Vol.1, pp.8-11).

Much of Vogt's work helped pave the way to transforming the lives of Parkinson's Disease sufferers and the mentally ill. Modern drug therapy for Parkinson's Disease, depression and schizophrenia has developed from the basic premise that the chemical systems at which the drugs are targeted - catecholamines - are present and active in the CNS in the first place. This is something which Vogt did much to establish. In 1960 Marthe Vogt moved back to Cambridge, appointed Head of the Pharmacology Unit of the Agricultural Research Council Institute of Animal Physiology at Babraham - a post she held until 1968. During this period she was also visiting Professor at Sydney, 1965, and Montreal, 1968. Despite heavy administrative duties, Vogt continued experimenting and was the first to demonstrate the actual release of diverse transmitters from the brain in vivo (in living animals), and their sensitivity to acute events such as electrical stimulation and changes in anaesthesia. Although she retired from administrative work in 1968 her experimental scientific work at Babraham diversified and she gained expertise with central serotonergic (5-HT) systems, constantly keeping up to date with new techniques and concepts. Marthe Vogt received many honours during her career; she was made an Honorary Member of the British Pharmacological Society (1971); Physiological Society (1974); German Physiological Society (1976); American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1977); Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1981); British Association of Psychopharmacology (1983). She was made a Life Fellow of Girton College Cambridge in 1970, elected Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine in 1980, won the Royal Medal of the Royal Society in 1981 and the Wellcome Gold Medal in 1983 which was awarded for outstanding contributions to pharmacology. The Universities of Edinburgh and Cambridge bestowed the Honorary DSc in 1974 and 1983 respectively. Vogt published around 200 scientific papers in physiological, pharmacological and neurological journals during her long career, c.1927-1984, as author or co-author. In the late 1980s [c.1988] Marthe Vogt went to live with her sister Marguerite in La Jolla, California, USA. She died on 9th September 2003, the day after her 100th birthday.

Noel Gordon Harris, MD (1897-1963) was a psychiatrist: he was a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians and biographical information is therefore available in Munk's Roll.

Walter Pagel was born in Berlin, the youngest son of Julius Pagel, the Professor of Medical History at the Friedrich Wilhelms Universität, Berlin, where Pagel studied medicine. Pagel then worked at the Preussisches Institut für Infektionskrankheiten 'Robert Koch', Berlin, undertaking research in microbiology and immunology. In 1924 he moved to the Berlin Municipal Tuberculosis Hospital at Sommerfeld, where he pursued the immunological aspects of TB, working on theories recently advanced by Ranke. He continued to work as a pathologist in Germany until Hitler's accession to power in 1933, when he was dismissed from his post as a Jew. He then worked briefly in Paris before settling in England where he worked in Cambridge and London until his retirement in 1967. Between 1924 and 1967 Pagel was the author of around 120 publications on tuberculosis, including seven major monographs - of which Pulmonary Tuberculosis, 1939, was the OUP's standard textbook on the subject.

However, it was as a medical historian that Pagel was best known, concerned with the study of philosophy and religion in the 16th and 17th centuries, and primarily with the work of van Helmont, Paracelsus and Harvey. Pagel's first major historical monograph on van Helmont was published in 1930, but the majority of his historical research was carried out after his retirement from pathology work in 1967.

Born, 1915; FRS,OM; Medical Scientist; Nobel Laureate; died, 1987.

Born London, 1901; Member Royal College of Surgeons, 1923; Licentiate Royal College of Physicians; Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (St Bartholomew's), Married Esther Long Price, 1924. Diploma in Public Health 1925-1947; Colonial Medical Services: Colony and Protectorate of Kenya; Doctor of Medicine (London) with Gold Medal, 1928; Dipl. de Med. Malariol., Paris, 1931; 1947-1968 Department of Parasitology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 1947-1968; Became Head of Department of Parasitology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 1952; Companion Order of St Michael and St George, 1964; Fellow Royal Society; Published Malaria Parasites, 1966; Heath Clark Lecturer, University of London Senior Research Fellow, Imperial College Field Station, Ashurst Lodge, Ascot, Berkshire, 1968; Published Progress in Parasitology, 1970; died 1994. Garnham's scientific achievements include the discovery of the liver stages of the malaria parasite and the elucidation of the full life cycle, as well as the fine structure, of many species of malaria parasites. He was involved in the eradication of onchocerciasis from Kenya, and did research into many parasitic infections, including piroplasmosis, also relapsing fever, mosquitoes, and virus diseases.

Philip Rainsford Evans was born, 1910; Educated Sidcup School, Somerset and Leighton Park School; graduated BSc, Manchester University, 1930; MB, ChB, 1933; married Barbara Hay-Cooper, 1935; children's registrar, King's College Hospital, 1935-1937, Rockefeller Travelling Research Fellow, 1937-1938; Asst Paediatrician, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, 1938-1939; Asst Physician to Children's Dept., King's College Hospital, 1939; Served with RAMC in North Africa and Italy, mentioned in despatches, Advisor in Medicine, Central Mediterranean Forces received rank of honorary Lt-Col, 1942-1946; MSc MD, 1941; FRCP, 1945; Physician, The Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Street, 1946-1975; Director, Dept. of Paediatrics, Guy's Hospital, 1946-1971; Editor, Archives of Disease in Childhood,1947-1954; Honorary Secretary, British Paediatric Association, 1954-1959; Honorary consultant on paediatrics to the Army, 1962-1966; Leader of the medical team sent out to the Children's Hospital, Saigon, 1966-1969; President of the section of paediatrics, Royal Society of Medicine, 1968-1969, CBE, 1968; Director, Tay-Sachs Foundation, 1971-1974; Physician-Paediatrician to the Queen, 1972-1976 , died, 1990.

Barbara Evans was born, 1909; Qualified in medicine at the Royal Free Hospital, 1934; married Philip Rainsford Evans, 1935; did important pathological research in connection with Sir Archibald McIndoe's plastic surgery team at Queen Victoria Hospital, East Grinstead, 1939-1945; Became a freelance journalist on medical matters, including being Medical Correspondent of the Sunday Times , 1950s; Went to Saigon with Philip Rainsford Evans, 1966; Published Caduceus in Saigon on the work of the paediatric team in Vietnam, 1968; Became Associate Editor of World Medicine, 1973; Consultant Editor of World Medicine, 1978-1980; Published Life Change, a popular manual on the menopause, 1979; Published Freedom to Choose: the Life and Work of Dr Helena Wright, Pioneer of Contraception, 1984; died, 1995.

Dr Hugo Rast was a Swiss national who was physician to the German Hospital, London. Born, 1891; Studied medicine in Berne, Lausanne, Paris and London; qualified MD, Berne, 1916; took up post at German Hospital London, 1919; FRCS, LRCS, 1822; Honorary Surgeon to the German Hospital, 1925; Senior Surgeon, German Hospital, 1938; Medical Superintendent, German Hospital, 1939-1945; Chairman of the Mixed Medical Commission for Prisoners of War (under the War Office) and for Civilian Internees (under the Home Office), 1941-1945; Chairman for Mixed Medical Commission for the European Theatre of War, USA War Department, 1944; Medical Adviser to various Embassies and Legations in London; Honorary Consultant to the North East Metropolitan Regional Hospital Board; died, 1982.

Born, 1906; GCVO,FRCP; Physician, clinical haematologist; died, 1982.

Born, 1907; CBE,MD,FRCP, FRS; Haematologist and biographer; died, 1986.

CBE, MA, DSc, DM, BCh, FRS, FRCP, FRCPath, FRS.

Biochemist; Professor of Chemical Pathology, Guy's Hospital Medical School, University of London, 1947-1965; Secretary-General International Union of Biochemistry 1955-1964; Director, Courtauld Institute of Biochemistry, Middlesex Hospital Medical School, University of London, 1965-1976; Wellcome Trust Trustee, 1963-1982, and Deputy Chairman, 1978-1982; Chairman Chemical Defence Advisory Board, Ministry of Defence, 1968-1975.

Rudolf Karl Freudenberg was born, 1908; Studied medicine at the Universities of Kiel, Munich and Freiburg; Qualified MD, 1932; Became house officer in surgery in Berlin, 1932; Married Gerda Vorster, 1932; Lost job on account of Jewish background; Obtained job at University Neuro-histological Institute, Vienna, 1935; Did work on physiology of insulin coma treatment, 1936; Invited to join the staff of Moorcroft House, a private psychiatric hospital in Hillingdon, Middlesex, and moved to England, 1937; Obtained British medical qualifications (Scottish Triple), 1939; During World War Two was involved in primate research on leucotomy; Obtained Diploma in Psychiatric Medicine, 1945; consultant and Deputy Superintendent at Netherne Hospital, Surrey, 1947; Physician Superintendent at Netherne, 1951-1973; Senior Principal Medical Officer and Head of Medical Mental Section at the Ministry of Health, 1961-1964; President of Psychiatry Section, Royal Society of Medicine, 1965-1966; Establishment of Netherne Postgraduate Medical Centre (later the Freudenberg Centre), 1969; retired from Netherne, 1973; Senior Principal Medical Officer and Chief Advisor on Mental Health Research at the Ministry of Health, 1973-1977, died, 1983.

Gerda Freudenberg was born, 1906; Qualified MD at Freiburg, 1932; Worked in medical posts in Berlin and married Rudolf Karl Freudenberg, 1933; Lost job in Berlin on account of Jewish background, 1935; Found jobs in Vienna, and later Berne, 1936; Joined her husband in England, with their first son, 1938; Worked with League of Friends of Netherne Hospital; Voluntary work for the Council for Music in Hospital, 1947-; Qualification for UK medical practice, 1950; died, 1995.

KCSI,FRCP,FRCS,FRS; Specialist in tropical medicine; Indian Medical Service 1893-1920.

Mrs Shannon was born in Sussex in 1896 and her family moved to Western Australia in 1903. Initially she trained as a teacher and taught in several schools in the Dalwallinu area. During the First World War following the appeal for nurses she trained as a nurse at Perth Public (now Royal Perth) Hospital from 1918 to 1921. Shortly after this she went to the UK to train in midwifery at Clapham Maternity Hospital, and it is to this period of her life and aspect of her career that this material chiefly relates. She returned to Western Australia late in 1923 and worked for some time at Perth Hospital until returning to school-teaching. She married William Arthur Shannon in 1927 and they lived at Walgoolan until 1937, where due to the remoteness from a hospital she would deliver local women's babies at their house. In 1942 she was asked to take care of newly born twin nieces who were not thriving, and notes on this are in the back of the exercise book (PP/SHA/4). Because of the shortage of nurses in wartime, Mrs Shannon returned to work, initially on an on-call basis but then full-time at the hospital in Dalwallinu doing both midwifery and general nursing, eventually becoming Matron. After that period her nursing was only voluntary and familial. More biographical details can be found in PP/SHA/8.

Siegmund Heinrich Foulkes, FRCPsych (1898-1976), was a psychoanalyst, a pioneer of group analytic psychotherapy and founder of the Group-Analytic Society (London). Elizabeth Therese Fanny Foulkes (née Marx) was his third wife and also a relative. She was a co-founder of the Group-Analytic Society (London) and deeply involved in group analytic psychotherapy. They were both German Jews who emigrated to England in the 1930s.

Unknown

Stratton was born in Manchester on 8 October 1913. He was educated at Central Manchester High School before winning scholarships to the University of Manchester in 1931. He graduated B.Sc. in 1934 and went on to study as a medical doctor, qualifying MB, ChB in 1937. He became MD in 1945. Stratton began work as a doctor in General Practice but in 1940, following the outbreak of war, he joined the Manchester Blood Depot. Initially he served as Medical Officer but was quickly appointed Deputy Regional Transfusion Officer. The post-war health service reforms saw the creation of twelve regional blood transfusion centres. Stratton was appointed Regional Blood Transfusion Officer and in 1949, when the Manchester Centre came under the Regional Hospital Board, Director of the North West Regional Blood Transfusion Centre (later the Manchester Blood Centre), a post he held to retirement in 1980.

He combined administrative, fund-raising and clinical responsibilities with active research in the area of blood group serology, making a particular contribution to the detection of blood group antibodies. In retirement he worked on antiglobulin reagents and haemagglutination, in association with D. Voak. In 1947 Stratton was appointed Special Lecturer in Human Serology at the University of Manchester. He was made Reader in 1967 and in 1977 was appointed to a Personal Chair. Stratton received a D.Sc. in 1957. Stratton was a Founder Fellow of the Royal College of Pathologists and a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. In the early 1980s he was a founder member and first President of the British Blood Transfusion Society. In recognition of his services in the field of blood transfusion Stratton was awarded the 1963 Oliver Memorial Award, the 1978 Karl Landsteiner Award of the American Association of Blood Banks and in 1987 received the British Blood Transfusion Society's highest honour, the James Blundell Award. Stratton died on 2 April 2001. He was survived by his wife Louisa and two sons.

Unknown

Thomas Latimer Cleave, known as Peter' to his friends and colleagues, was born in Exeter in 1906, and educated at Clifton College. Between 1922-27, he attended medical schools at the Royal Infirmary, Bristol, and St Mary's Hospital, London, achieving MRCS and LRCP. At Bristol, one of his teachers was Rendle Short, who had proposed that appendicitis is caused by a lack of cellulose in the diet (it is worth noting, perhaps, from a biographical perspective, that Cleave's sister had died at the age of eight years from a perforated appendicitis). Charles Darwin's writings provided the intellectual framework to Cleave's life-long engagement with the relationship between diet and health, built upon the premise that the human body is ill-adapted to the diet of modern (western) man. In this context, he considered refined carbohydrates (white flour and sugar) to be the most transformed food, and therefore the most dangerous. After completing his medical training, Cleave entered the Royal Navy in 1927 as Surgeon Lieutenant. Between 1938-1940, he served as Medical Specialist at RN Hospital, Hong Kong. It was during his war service, in 1941, whilst on the battleship King George V, that he acquired his naval nicknamethe bran man' when he had sacks of bran brought on board to combat the common occurrence of constipation amongst sailors. Following war service, he worked at Royal Naval Hospitals in Chatham (1945-1948), Malta (1949-1951) and Plymouth (1952-1953). He retired from the Royal Navy in 1962 as Surgeon Captain, having finished his naval career as Director of Medical Research at the RN Medical School.

Although Cleave had published a short booklet in 1932 (A Molecular Conception of Organisms and Neoplasms), the publication to receive attention first was a paper published in 1956, in the Journal of the Royal Naval Medical Service, entitled: "The neglect of natural principles in current medical practice" (42:2, 55-63). This paper can be considered the foundation to a series of incremental publications aligning (Darwinian) `natural principles' in diet to sustained good health. The major publications include: Fat Consumption and Coronary Heart Disease (1957), On the Causation of Varicose Veins (1960), Peptic Ulcer (1962) and Diabetes, Coronary Thrombosis and the Saccharine Disease (1966). His final publications were The Saccharine Disease (1974), which largely synthesised his previous publications, and the paper published in 1977: "Over-consumption. Now the most dangerous cause of disease in Westernised countries," Public Health: The Journal of the Society of Community Medicine (91:3), 127-31.

Recognition came late to Cleave. In 1979, he was awarded both the Harben gold medal of the Royal Institute of Public Health and Hygiene and the Gilbert Blane medal for naval medicine by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons. During the 1970s, his ideas found favour in America, where the doctor and author Miles H Robinson was a particular champion. Robinson was instrumental in the American publication of The Saccharine Disease, for which he wrote an introduction. In 1973, Cleave gave evidence to the US Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, at the invitation of Senator George McGovern. Not without support (Sir Richard Doll provided a Foreword to successive editions of Diabetes, Coronary Thrombosis and the Saccharine Disease), nevertheless throughout his life Cleave was very much an outsider to the medical establishment. His publications, all made at his own expense, were often criticised for being too theoretical and insufficiently grounded in detailed primary research. As Kenneth Heaton has noted, he was "recording differences in disease patterns over time and space long before the epidemiology of chronic diseases was a recognised discipline...[and] he painted with broad strokes on the biggest possible canvas when others were focusing on ever more minute areas of investigation."

Born 1911, died 1989.

William Drummond Macdonald Paton was born in Hendon, London, 5 May, 1917, and died 17 October, 1993. Son of a clergyman, Paton was educated at Winchester House, Brackley, and at Repton. At New College, Oxford, he obtained first class honours in Animal Physiology (1938). He proceeded to study at University College Hospital (UCH) where he qualified as a physician (1942), marrying, in the same year, Phoebe Margaret Rooke.

His subsequent appointments were: Pathologist, Midhurst Sanatorium (1943); Member of Scientific Staff, National Institute for Medical Research (1944-52); Reader in Applied Pharmacology, UCH (1952-54); Vandervell Chair of Pharmacology, Royal College of Surgeons, London (1954-59); Professor of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, and Fellow of Balliol College (1959-84).

Other offices held include: Secretary of the Physiological Society (1951-57); Chairman, MRC Committee on Non-Explosive Anaesthetic Agents (1960-69); Member of the Medical Research Council (1963-67); Member of the Council of the Royal Society (1967-69); Delegate of the Clarendon Press, Oxford (1967-72); Chairman, MRC Working Party on Biochemical and Physiological Aspects of Drug Dependence (1968-75); Chairman, Editorial Board, British Pharmacological Society (1969-74); President, Institute of Animal Technicians (1969-74); Member, Central Advisory Council for Science and Technology (1970-71); Chairman, Committee on the Scheme for the Suppression of Doping in Horse-Racing (1970-71); Chairman, Research Defence Society (1972-77); Member, (Hunter) Independent Scientific Committee on Smoking and Health (1978-79). In addition, Paton served as a Rhodes Trustee from 1968, and as a Wellcome Trustee from 1978. From 1953, Paton was consultant and adviser to the Director of Naval Physical Research, and was appointed as Civil Consultant in Underwater Physiology to the Navy in 1978, retiring from the role in 1982 on attaining the age of 65 years.

Amongst his many honours and awards were: FRS (1956), JP (1956), CBE (1968), FRCP (1969), FFARCS (Hon) (1975), and Knight bachelor (1979). He shared the Cameron Prize (1956) and the Gairdner Foundation Award (1959) with Eleanor Zaimis for their work on methonium compounds, and received the Gold Medal of the Society of Apothecaries (1979).

Sir Walter Morley Fletcher, KBE, CB, FRCP, FRS (1873-1933), was a physiologist.

Born 24 April 1907; Qualified in medicine, St Mary's Hospital, 1930; House Physician and House Surgeon to the Medical and Surgical Professorial Units, St Mary's Hospital, 1930-1931; House Physician to the Neurological Unit, St Mary's Hospital, 1931; Resident Medical Superintendent, St Mary's Hospital, 1932; Assistant to the Medical Professorial Unit, St Mary's Hospital, 1932-1934; Member of the Royal College of Physicians, 1933; Period of illness and resignation from St Mary's; locum at Hanwell Mental Hospital, Middlesex and periods in private and general practice, 1934; Medical Officer, Maudsley Hospital, 1935-1946; Clinical Assistant to the Psychiatric Department, St George's Hospital, 1937-1942; Rockefeller Fellowship and Research Fellow in Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, 1938-1939; Deputy Clinical Director, Sutton Emergency Hospital (Maudsley Hospital), 1939-1945; Acting Honorary Psychiatrist to West End Hospital for Nervous Disorders, c.1942-1945; published An Introduction to Physical Methods of Treatment in Psychiatry, 1944; Visiting Professor of Neuropsychiatry, Duke University Medical School, North Carolina, USA, 1947-1948; Consultant, St Thomas' Hospital, 1948; Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, 1949; Registrar, Royal Medico-Psychological Association, 1952-1971; President of the Section of Psychiatry of the Royal Society of Medicine, 1956-1957; published The Battle for the Mind, 1957; Associate Secretary, World Psychiatric Association, 1961-1966; published autobiography The Unquiet Mind, 1967; retired from St Thomas' Hospital, 1972; published The Mind Possessed, 1973; died 27 August 1988.

The Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC) is a specialist corps in the British Army which provides medical services to all British Army personnel and their families in war and in peace.

The Association was started in 1937 following dissatisfaction amongst ophthalmologists with the current arrangements for charging patients (many hospitals were giving free prescriptions). Also it was felt that the National Ophthalmic Treatment Board needed further support, that women should not be excluded from ophthalmic benefit, that the Ophthalmic Committee of the British Medical Association was inadequate and that ophthalmologists needed to conduct their own medico-political affairs. Inevitably, one of the issues which concerned this body throughout the early 1940s was planning for a National Eye Service. In 1946 the Association amalgamated with the reconstituted Faculty of Ophthalmologists.

Originally set up to consider the duties, responsibilities and interests of Masters and Matrons of Poor Law Institutions (at the time a joint post held by a married couple resident on the premises), the Association underwent various alterations in structure, organisation and title as a result of changing attitudes and legislation. The names held by the organisation were as follows: National Association of Workhouse Masters and Matrons (to c 1915) National Association of Masters and Matrons of Poor Law Institutions (c 1915-1932) National Association of Administrators of Local Government Institutions/Establishments (1932-1948) Association of Health and Welfare Administrators (1948-1970) Association of Hospital and Residential Care Officers (1970-1982) Association of Health and Residential Care Officers (1982-1984). Its members were involved in residential care (mostly of children and the aged), and in hospital administration, throughout its existence. In 1944 the Association established a closer relationship with National Association of Local Government Officers (NALGO), the trade union representing local government officers, in order to have the resources of this larger body at their disposal. The differences in approach, and the fact that AHRCO was a small interest group within this much larger organisation, led to inevitable tensions, in particular over the question of industrial action. Membership, once over 2000, declined to 400 by 1979, as a result of structural changes within the health and caring professions and changes in attitudes generally. It was thus decided to dissolve the Association as a formally constituted body in 1984. Further details of the history of this Association can be found in Lionel Lewis, Association of Health and Residential Care Officers: A Short History (1898-1984) (L. Lewis, Faversham, [n.d.]), a copy of which may be found at SA/AHR/C.55.

The Abortion Law Reform Association (ALRA) was founded in 1935 for the legalisation of abortion in certain circumstances. This was achieved by the 1967 Abortion Act: the Association continues to combat attempts to restrict the availability of legal abortions and to ensure that the intentions of the Act are being carried out.

The British Society of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (BSAC) was founded in 1971 as a result of a general feeling that an interdisciplinary forum was needed in Britain for the discussion and development of antimicrobial chemotherapy, a field dealing with the treatment of parasitic infections using antibacterial drugs. The Society's Council meets several times a year, as do its Committees and working parties, the minutes of which can be found in this collection (Section A). The reports of these working parties have proved to be very influential in the field of chemotherapy, several having been published in major medical journals. This collection contains examples of some of these (Section D). The spring and autumn meetings of the BSAC, as well as the joint meetings and international symposia have also been important in publicising the field and forging links with other bodies (see Section B). The Society hosted the ninth International Congress of Chemotherapy (ICC) in 1975 and was successful in its bid to host the 21st ICC in Birmingham in 1999 (see item E.6).

The recent past has seen the Society's membership and influence grow. The inauguration of the L P Garrod annual lecture in 1982, named after Lawrence Paul Garrod (1895-1979), a renowned bacteriologist and world figure in the study of hospital infection and antibiotics, as well as the awarding of the international Umezawa Prize of the International Society of Chemotherapy to a BSAC Council member in 1990, demonstrate the Society's growing importance. The development of the Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy and the newsletter (sections A.5 and C) have added to the Society's national and international prestige.

The Association of Area Medical Officers of Health was set up as a result of local government reorganisation, as a successor to the Association of County Medical Officers of Health, when Medical Officers employed by local government for each county were replaced by Medical Officers based on the new Area Health Authorities within the National Health Service. Many former County Medical Officers of Health were re-employed by Area Health Authorities. The Association came into being early in 1974, and was dissolved in 1981 in anticipation of the abolition of Area Health Authorities in April 1982.

Unknown

ASH serves to educate the public about the dangers of smoking, to support cessation campaigns - including an annual No Smoking Day - and to campaign for legislation limiting the marketing of tobacco products. Since its foundation in 1971, it has been active in publicising the dangers of passive smoking, worked to discourage smoking by children and campaigned against tobacco marketing in the developing countries.

Founded by Vicky Clement-Jones, who in spite of her medical training, realised when she was diagnosed with cancer, that she had no idea of how it felt to be a patient and cope with the uncertainties that lay ahead. Through her own experiences, she became aware of the fact that most cancer sufferers were not offered by the medical community the kind of practical help and advice they needed to cope with life. She formed BACUP (now CancerBACUP), which continues today to provide an information service for people who have to live with cancer. Professional and practical advice, as well as emotional counselling, is given by nurses trained in cancer care.

A Scottish Association for Occupational Therapy was established in 1932, and the Association of Occupational Therapists in England in 1936. A Joint Council was formed in 1952, and final merger took place in 1974 under the title the British Association of Occupational Therapists.

The BAOT is the only professional, educational and trade union organisation for occupational therapists and support staff in the UK, and is a member of the Committee for Occupational Therapists in the European Communities (COTEC) and the World Federation of Occupational Therapists (WFOT). It acts to validate and monitor pre-registration courses, guide continuing professional development and to initiate and support research and development into professional practice. It also sets standards of ethical and professional conduct and acts to represent and promote the profession's views and needs to central government, other professional bodies and consumers. Its members have full membership of UNISON, which serves to promote employment rights and conditions.

The Birth Control Campaign was the pressure group of the Birth Control Trust (a registered charity), although it was set up before the Trust in 1971. It took political action in the form of lobbying for National Health Services in this field, and defended and promoted existing legislation, such as the 1967 Abortion Act. The Trust, however, published pamphlets on aspects of birth control, abortion and population and acted as an information resource centre: being a charity it could defend existing law but not campaign for changes.

From 1971 to 1974 the Birth Control Campaign campaigned for the wider provision of male sterilisation (vasectomy) and for completely free provision of contraception under the NHS. After 1974, when legislation was passed on these matters, the BCC turned its attention to campaigning for improved NHS facilities for contraception, abortion and sterilisation and for these services to be advertised and promoted. The Campaign was also been actively involved in opposing attempts to restrict the terms of the 1967 Abortion Act.

The MRC Blood Group Unit succeeded the Galton Laboratory Serum Unit set up in 1935 under the direction of Professor (later Sir) Ronald Fisher and financed through the Medical Research Council by the Rockefeller Foundation. The Serum Unit was based at University College, London, and re-located to Cambridge during the Second World War. In 1946, the Unit was reconstituted at the Lister Institute for Preventive Medicine as the Blood Group Research Unit, under the directorship of Dr Robert Race.

The need for safe transfusion therapy intensified blood group research in the run-up to the Second World War, and in 1940 Landsteiner and Wiener discovered the Rh factor, building on foundations laid by Levine and Stetson in 1939. From 1946 the MRC Blood Group Unit acquired an international reputation in the highly specialised field of haematology, extending its work in 1965 into the genetics of blood groups. Upon the retirement of Dr Race in 1973, Dr Ruth Sanger became director of the Unit. Under Dr Sanger's direction, the Unit continued to make a unique contribution to the identification of blood groups, and to the applications of the blood group systems to the problems of human genetics. In 1983, upon the retirement of Dr Sanger, Dr Patricia Tippett became director. The MRC Blood Group Unit moved from the Lister Institute to premises at University College, London in 1975. It was disbanded in September 1995, although its work continues in other research centres.

Dr Hugh Baron was keen to establish a society for the promotion of arts in hospital, and he and other interested parties proposed to set up a centre for this. A Steering Committee was established. Originally, negotiations were with Manchester Polytechnic funded by the Carnegie Trust (but they pulled out when staff were being appointed, as it was counter to their remit). However, the Committee found itself unable to agree on a Director, and plans to set up the centre in Manchester were scrapped. This led to some of the Committee members (notably Peter Senior, who applied for the post of Director) breaking away. Eventually, Senior established a rival institution in Manchester (Arts for Health. See D.1) and the British Health Care Arts Centre based itself in Dundee at the Duncan of Jordanstane Art College, under the Directorship of Malcom Miles. It was financed through donations from charitable trusts and foundations.

In 1993, through financial instability, the Centre was wound up. However, the English venture merged with the arts project at the United Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust (at Leeds General Infirmary), whilst the Scottish arm remained in Dundee. The two institutions were separate in terms of finance and management but still retained collaborative links.

The aims of the BHCAC were: (a) to improve the environment in all health care buildings, by encouraging the development of the arts in these buildings through the provision of an advice and consultancy service, both to the health authorities and to arts organisations and projects working with the Health Service, and (b) to initiate studies and arts in health care. Every year, the BHCAC awarded the Astra Award funded by Astra Pharmaceuticals.

Following the launch of the British Holistic Medical Association in September 1983, which restricted membership to doctors, a number of health care practitioners from other disciplines, including nursing, social work and physiotherapy as well as other forms of alternative practice such as osteopathy, acupuncture and homeopathy, interested in and seeking to work with a more holistic approach, proposed to set up an association representing these groups, to work in partnership with the BHMA. A working party of health care practitioners organised a founding conference in November 1984, at which the British Holistic Health Association was established.

The British Institute of Musculoskeletal Medicine formed was formed on 5th December 1992 from the union of two other bodies, the British Association of Manipulative Medicine (BAMM) and the Institute of Orthopaedic Medicine.

Foundation of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association. 19 Jul 1832; the Eastern Medical Association is the first branch to open, Sep 1835; Monmouthshire (first Welsh branch) opens, 1852; name changes to the British Medical Association, 1856; the Medical Act is passed. Establishment of the General Medical Council and the Medical Register, 1858; first appointment of the Parliamentary Bills Committee, 1863; South of Ireland Branch opens, 1874; Association registered as a company limited by guarantee, 1974; Edinburgh (first Scottish branch) opens, 1875; first overseas branch in Jamica opens, 1877; the Medical Act is passed, 1886; National Health Insurance Bill, 1911; Medical Planning Commission set up to consider the future of British medical services, 1940; Commission publishes its report, Jun 1942; Beveridge report published, Dec 1942; Government publishes its White Paper 'A National Health Service', Feb 1944; Negotiating Committee set up under the chairmanship of Dr Guy Dain to negotiate with the coalition Government, 1945; 7 principles announced - these had to be adhered to if the proposed national health service was to gain professional support, 15 Dec 1945; publication of the National Health Services Bill, 20 Mar 1946; National Health Services Bill passed, 6 Nov 1946; NHS came into being, 5 Jul 1948; appointment of the Royal (Pilkington) Commission on Doctors' and Dentists' Remuneration, 1957; report of the Medical Services Review Committee published (Porritt Report), 1962; report of the committee set up to review the future of general practice (committee set up in 1961), 1963; publication of the Government’s Green Papers on the structure of the Health Service in England and Wales and Scotland, 1968; branches are abolished and replaced by Regional Councils, 1973-1974.

Founded 1909 to promote the advancement of medical science through the award of research fellowships by Otto Beit (later Sir Otto) in memory of his brother Alfred, who had died in 1906, from whom Otto, as residual legatee, inherited a large fortune. The purpose of the Fellowships was to promote the advancement of medical science at a time when research scholarships were few. The first Fellowships were awarded in 1910. Initially the Fellowships were for a period of three years, with the only condition on application being that the candidate was of European descent by both parents, although the Deed of Foundation was altered in 1945 to open up the field to applicants with a degree from any university in the British Empire. In 1922 it was decided that Fellows could extend their period of study to four years in exceptional circumstances. At the same time a Senior Fellowship was established, also for a period of three years, for those who had held both a Junior and a Fourth Year Fellowship, allowing research to be carried out for total of seven years. The Fellowships are governed by a Board of Trustees and an Advisory Boar, the Trustees being men involved in public affairs, and the Advisory Board made up of eminent medics and scientists. The Principal of the University of London is always ex-officio a member of the Board of Trustees.