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League for the Prohibition of Cruel Sports , [1923] -1938 League Against Cruel Sports , 1938-

The League for the Prohibition of Cruel Sports (LPCS) was founded by Henry B Amos and his friend Ernest Bell. During 1923 Henry B Amos had in successfully campaigned for the banning of Sunday rabbit-coursing in the district of Morden, by means of letters to the press, distribution of leaflets and gathering support amongst civic and religious leaders. At the same time, he was campaigning for a Protection of Animals Bill, designed to stop both rabbit-coursing and hunting of carted (transported) stag. In 1924, Amos decided to devote his whole time to this humane work thought the formation of a society, and Ernest Bell agreed to become the Honorary Treasurer. They had both been members of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) and former members of the Humanitarian League (ceased in 1919) buy felt that RSPCA was insufficiently active on the hunting issue.

The League's stated principle was That it is iniquitous to inflict suffering, either directly or indirectly, upon sentient animals for the purpose of sport.' It initially focused on the prohibition of recognised blood-sports including fox-hunting, stag-hunting, otter-hunting, hare-hunting, rabbit and hare-coursing. It also campaigned against the Rodeo, which was staged at the British Empire Exhibition, Wembley, and was attempting to establish an English headquarters at Leeds. Campaign methods ofpractical propaganda' included the printing and issuing of leaflets, monthly articles in Animals Friend, lobbying community and religious leaders, letters to the press. Membership of new society grew steadily by 1927, had 1000 members.

Internal conflict was a continual feature of the League's existence. In 1931, Bell resigned, along with the President, the Hon S Coleridge, as did his successor, Lady Cory, the same year. The disputes mainly involved policy disagreements, particularly over the hunting activities of Royalty. The League sought to achieve respectability, by acquiring as patrons or vice presidents -those with titles, churchmen, and military rank.

In 1932, the dissidents formed the National Society for the Abolition of Cruel Sports (NSACS) split from the League, however publicity generated by the spilt attracted sufficient membership for both the LACS and the NSACS to survive. The League's tactics were mainly designed to general publicity by pamphlets and leaflets especially, as well as letter writing and articles in local and national newspapers.

Local semi-autonomous branches of the League were also established in the South-West, Oxford and Bristol started in 1927-1928. By 1939, 8 active local branches. During World War 2, membership dipped and achievements were few. The Secretary, Mr J Sharp, largely managed the Leagues affairs. He attacked hunting as an unpatriotic activity, and gained supported from several newspapers. He encouraged people to write letters to the press, which was one of the few ways of beginning the debate, and in 1942, sent 556 letters to the press, of which 110 were published. After the War, promise of legislation in 1948-9, and by the Scott Henderson inquiry of 1950-1, both served to renew interesting in the League's activities.

During the 1950s, the League also attempted to raise media interest in the issue of animal cruelty, complaining about cruelty to the horses involved in the Grand National, and objecting to the BBC programme on myxomatosis. Journalist and Chairman of the League, E Hemingway, was particularly active in this area, and managed to persuade 36 newspapers to publish reports of the League's 1956 AGM. He was successful publicist, and enthusiastic for the disrupting of hunts and annoying of hunting people. However, the society was gaining a radical image and failed to gain support in the arenas where decisions about hunting were made.

Hemingway did however introduce an alternate policy, in 1957, of buying small but strategically placed pieces of land, initially on Exmoor, and denying hunting people access to it. When a hunt crossed the land in 1959, the League responded with demands for police protection, a High Court injunction against the Devon and Somerset Staghounds, and placed armed guards around the sanctuary. This policy lead to further purchases of land, and by 1976, 24 properties amounting to over 1500 acres, with another 9 properties, and 600 acres added by 1982. In some cases the League purchased sporting rights, but not the land itself, or purchased whole farms, which they then leased them to commercial non-hunting farmers. This `sanctuary policy' was successful in protecting a number of animals, providing regular and continuous publicity for League whenever there was an invasion, and gave the organisation a way of spending its increasing legacy income.
In conjunction with this, the League began to offer free legal advice to land owners who wished to sue or get injunctions against hunts that trespassed on their property, winning 6 cases in 1974. The League also developed policy of asking landlords such as the National Trust and the Crown to ban hunting on their land, as well as lobbying urban councils to do the same. In 1982, the Cooperative Wholesale Society, owner of 50000 acres of farmland was persuaded to ban hunting on all its land.

The League was initially supported by membership subscriptions, later however War legacies made up a significant proportion of the League's income and since 1960, more income has been received from legacies than subscriptions, thus giving the League financial independence from its own members. In 1970s membership reached around 13000.

However, the League had failed in successive attempts to abolish coursing failed in the late 1960s and 1970s. The Protection of Badgers Act 1973 was a positive step, but it still authorised landowners to kill badgers. Internal disputes erupted again in May 1977, as the Annual General Meeting was adjourned in chaos. At the Extraordinary General Meeting in November that year, the arguments continued and the current Chairman, R Rowley, was challenged and withdrew from the election. Eventually Lord Houghton, persuaded to stand for post of Chairman and was elected in December 1977, and the League was able to focus once more on working to change legislation in order to effectively end hunting.

In 1978, the League joined the General Election Co-ordinating Committee for Animal protection (GECCAP), which was formed as a consultative body, in order to make direct approaches to politicians and political parties, in preparation for the 1979 general election. Its main aims were to persuade political parties to develop an animal welfare policy, create a standing Royal Commission on Animal protection , and make policy commitments on areas of concern including blood sports. In Jul 1979, GECCAP was dissolved that the National Consultative Committee or Animal Protection was formed.

It was not until 1981, that the Wildlife and Countryside Act increased the protection of badgers, and was further strengthened in 1985. The passing of the Badger Sett (Protection) Act 1991 was a major success for the League. Other successes have included the Wild Mammals (Protection) Act 1996; and the Protection of Wild Mammals (Scotland) Act 2002.

League for Democracy in Greece , Great Britain and Northern Ireland , Relief Committee Greek Relief Fund , Great Britain and Northern Ireland

Lea , M Helen , (Sister Grace) , fl 1920s-1980s , nurse

LCC , London County Council x London County Council

When the Council became a local education authority in 1904 the provision of further education was a permissive power, not a duty. However the Education Committee continued the practice of the former Technical Education Board of the Council of making grants in aid of institutions on which the Council was represented, as well as providing and maintaining institutions of its own.

After the end of the Second World War there was a remarkable increase in the number of students released by their employers to take courses at day colleges or technical colleges. The day colleges (formerly called day continuation schools) started in 1922. Their curriculum provided an extension of general education, together with some vocational work where appropriate. The Council's numerous evening institutes also provided a wide variety of courses both vocational and non-vocational for many thousands of Londoners.

Employers released that efficiency was increased by further education, and it became common for young workers in many trades and industries to attend a technical college for one day a week or for longer periods for vocational courses. Sandwich courses were developed whereby employees could be released for periods of about six months a time to work towards nationally recognised qualifications.

In 1947 the Council raised the status of its commercial institutes to that of the technical colleges and schools of art. They were renamed colleges of commerce. Their curriculum included courses for students engaged in banking, insurance, and other branches of commerce, with professional courses in law, languages and local government.

For many years before the Second World War the Council helped youth clubs by providing accommodation, instruction and equipment. In 1940 the Council established recreational evening institutes, and the London Youth Committee and borough youth committees were formed to co-ordinate youth work and form youth clubs. The Council also ran a youth employment service, providing guidance to school leavers.

The Council maintained a close and cordial association with the University of London. In addition to the granting of awards to students proceeding to the University, the Council made grants towards the general cost of the University and for special projects. The Council ran a scholarship scheme inspired by the principle that no eligible candidate should be debarred from higher education through lack of means to pay for it. A system of maintenance grants based on parental income was instituted for pupils of 15 to 18 years of age, and a variety of awards were made available for advanced courses in preparation for university degrees, for the professions and for vocational courses.

Other institutions and ancillary features made significant contributions to the London educational system. Among these the Council's schools of art achieved a deservedly high reputation.

LCC , London County Council x London County Council

The management of the Council's parks and open spaces was originally the responsibility of the Superintending Architect. In 1892, a separate "Parks and Open Spaces Sub-Department" under a chief officer was created and, in 1895, its title was changed to "Parks and Open Spaces Department". The Parks Department was responsible for the administration, design, improvement and maintenance of all the Council's parks, open spaces and gardens, including those attached to certain Council buildings and housing estates. Facilities for games and athletics were provided in many parks, encouraged by the Physical Training and Recreation Act. The deep water ponds at Highgate and Hampstead and various open air swimming pools and lidos encouraged bathing. Entertainment was also common in some parks, particularly performances by bands, dancing and entertainments for children. Some parks included wildlife such as water fowl, aviaries, deer and wallabies as well as horticultural features, floral displays and tropical gardens.

In 1931 the Council was instrumental in obtaining the passing of the London Squares Preservation Act, as a result of which over 460 garden enclosures in London squares are preserved as open spaces. The Council was also instrumental in the formation of the Green Belt, an area of woodlands surrounding the built-up urban environment. In 1935 a scheme was launched to begin purchase of land which would form the belt, with £2,000,000 set aside by the Council for this purpose. By 1937, 43,000 acres had been preserved.

During the Second World War much damage was done to London parks, yet they were very important as places of entertainment and relaxation. Post war priorities included repairs, but also expansion under the County of London Plan, 1948. This called for the creation of more open spaces, and specified an ideal of seven acres for each thousand of population. During the 1950s several new parks were laid out, including Hammersmith Park, Haggerston Park in Shoreditch and Brickfield Gardens in Limehouse. In 1952 work began on the riverside promenade along the South Bank, formerly part of the Festival of Britain site. The policy of providing entertainment in parks was continued, with theatre, opera and ballet, open air cinemas, symphony concerts, brass bands, dancing, gymkhanas and funfairs. Open air sculpture exhibitions were first held in 1948, followed by open air painting exhibitions. Parks were also made available to organisations arranging displays, parades, rallies, dog shows and so on. The provision of sports facilities was improved and specialist horticultural officers were hired to ensure that the wildlife and flora were well cared for.

LCC , London County Council x London County Council

In 1948 the poor law, after an existence of almost 350 years, was abolished. Those among the poor whose financial needs were not met by national insurance were given material help by the National Assistance Board. Local authorities were delegated some responsibilities by the Board, for example the provision of reception centres for the temporary accommodation of vagrants and persons without a settled way of life. In addition the National Assistance Act, 1948, required local authorities to make residential provision for the blind, disabled, elderly and infirm. However, under the Act these services were not to be provided free as a kind of official charity. Persons receiving help were to pay according to their means, even if their means were no more than a retirement pension. The Council's responsibilities in all this related therefore to the provision of establishments of various kinds. At the end of the Second World War there were public assistance institutions (formerly the old workhouses), casual wards (where tramps were put up for the night), three lodging houses, and, left over from wartime activities, the rest centres and rest homes. The Welfare Department was responsible for the organisation and management of the various residential homes, temporary homes and institutions for the assistance of the poor.

The National Assistance Act, 1948, required local authorities to provide 'residential accommodation for persons who by reason of age, infirmity or any other circumstances are in need of care and attention which is not otherwise available to them'. The Council's policy was to provide establishments smaller in size and with a less spartan atmosphere than the old poor law institutions. However, the severe shortage of accommodation after the Second World War made this difficult and certain larger institutions were adapted for use, such as Luxborough Lodge, whichheld 1,200 residents. These larger homes were gradually phased out of use.

In addition to old people's homes, the Council provided mother and baby homes for assisting unmarried expectant and nursing mothers. With the postwar rise in unmarried mothers, the Council found it necessary to provide one home for mothers and babies where girls could stay for several weeks before and after confinement, an ante-natal unit and two mother-and-baby units, as well as a working mothers hostel.

Casual wards provided temporary board and lodging for vagrants. After the war they were replaced by reception centres. The Camberwell Reception Centre had accommodation for nearly 700 men. They were provided with food, a bed and washing facilities, and they were expected to help with domestic duties before leaving. Welfare officers of the Council and the National Assistance Board helped them to rehabilitate themselves and to find employment.

LCC , London County Council x London County Council

Town planning is the control of the general form and use of buildings and the urban environment (as opposed to control of the mode of construction of buildings, which was done by the District Surveyors). Modern legislation empowering local authorities to control the development of land dates from 1909, however, before 1939 planning by the London County Council (LCC) was hindered by restrictive legislation which made it very expensive to eliminate or restrict undesirable buildings. During the Second World War, however, it was recognised that air-raid damage provided an opportunity. In 1941 the Minister of Works asked the Council to prepare a plan for the reconstruction of London after the war. Sir Patrick Abercombie was appointed to prepare the plan in conjunction with the LCC Architect. The result was the County of London Plan, published in 1943, which drew attention to major defects in the structure of London: traffic congestion, sub-standard housing, intermingling of housing and industry and lack of open spaces. In 1945 the Council decided to embark on a short term programme of road works; to reconstruct certain areas, particularly Stepney and Poplar; to develop the South Bank of the Thames between County Hall and Waterloo Bridge, and to increase open space to 2 and a half acres per 1000 population.

The Town and Country Planning Act of 1947 embodied most of the planning principles for which legal recognition had been desired by the authors of the 1943 plan. Under that Act the County was made the planning authority for the Administrative County (including the City) and was required to carry out a survey and submit to the appropriate Minister a plan and report for future development. This report, in the form of a development plan setting out proposals for the next 20 years, was submitted to the Minister of Housing and Local Government in 1951. Objections to the plan were heard at an inquiry held from September 1952 until June 1953. The Minister gave final approval to the plan in 1955. It was a requirement of the Act that a review of the plan be held every five years, providing the opportunity for adjustment and flexibility. This was important as the LCC town planners increasingly faced new problems: the increase in motor traffic congestion, with associated problems of car parking; reconciling new roads with the urban scene; reconciling private development proposals with their own long term plans; ensuring waterside land was used appropriately; preserving buildings of historic interest; ensuring that tall buildings were properly sited; moving of wholesale markets and developing of surplus railway land for other uses.

The plan designated various sites were as 'areas of comprehensive redevelopment', such as Poplar, Stepney, Bermondsey, Elephant and Castle and Knightsbridge Green. In these areas the Council wanted to achieve better living conditions by regrouping commerce and industry close to railways, canals and docks and providing schools, local shopping, entertainment, open spaces and other social services while maintaining a traditional sense of community. In other areas traffic problems would be addressed with new roads.

LCC , London County Council x London County Council

The Children's Service of the London County Council (LCC) was responsible for 4 groups of deprived children: those placed in care by their parents, those brought before juvenile court and then sent to approved schools or placed in care, those being adopted and those with foster parents. In 1929 the Local Government Act gave the functions of the poor law authorities to the LCC. The Council began to develop child services, but the Second World War interrupted this process. After the war a conception of a new form of organisation was beginning to emerge.

The 1948 Children's Act vested central control of children's services in the Home Secretary; the county councils were made children's authorities, and each was required to appoint a children's Committee and a children's officer. The LCC set up its Children's Committee in December 1948. The first children's officer was appointed in April 1949. The LCC had the duty to receive into care any child in the County, under the age of 17, whose parents or guardians were temporarily or permanently prevented from providing for them properly. Having received a child into care the Council was required to "further his best interests and afford him opportunity for the proper development of his character and abilities".

The 1948 Act required the Council to find foster carers where possible. When this was neither practical nor desirable a child was placed in a children's home. When the Children's Service was established there were 24 children's homes and nurseries. 7 of these homes were very large and had been built by the Boards of Guardians. The Service pursued three aims: that homes were to be modernised by rebuilding and adaptation, that all children should be removed as quickly as possible from unsatisfactory establishments, and that new, smaller homes should be built to facilitate the closing of the out of date largeer homes. The LCC also developed several specialised establishments, with highly qualified staff, for children presenting acute difficulties of behaviour. By 1964 there were 160 homes under the care of the Service, including nurseries for under-fives, hostels for young wage earners still in care and homes for short stay children. Procedures in the homes were also changed. Children were sent to local schools and encouraged to bring friends back to the home. Parents were invited to visit frequently. Local adults could act as 'uncles and aunts' to otherwise friendless children. Clubs, out of school activities and house magazines flourished.

The Children's Service was required to make available to juvenile courts information on the health, character and school records of all children appearing before the court. The LCC was obliged to provide remand homes for children who appeared at juvenile court, where young people awaiting a court appearance were held in safe custody. They were also used as observation centres, where psychiatrists could observe the children and provide the court with information about reasons for their behaviour and suggest the most appropriate school for the child.

In 1930 the Council decided to consent to the adoption of suitable children in its care. In 1958 the Council appointed 2 adoption officers, who came to be recognised as expert advisers on all matters connected to adoption.

LCC , London County Council x London County Council

In 1945 the Ministry of Education issued regluations determining which disabilities required special educational treatment, namely, "the blind, the partially sighted, the deaf, the partially deaf, the diabetic, the delicate, the educationally sub-normal, the epileptic, the maladjusted, the physically disabled and those with speech defects".

Not all disabled children needed to be educated in special schools. Children with partial hearing, who formerly attended special schools, were able after 1947 to attend special units in ordinary primary schools, and in 1959 arrangements were made for the attendance of partially hearing children at secondary schools. Similarly, of children with defective sight, only the most severely handicapped needed to attend special schools. Arrangements were made for the transportation of children from home to school, and if a child was so severely handicapped that travel to school was not feasible arrangements were made for education in hospital or at home. Children with cerebral palsy were provided with special classes, to which they were taken by ambulance.

The curriculum of the special schools was designed to give a basic education similar to that in ordinary schools. Children were encouraged to disregard their disability and to look upon themselves as normal. They went to the rural centres, on school journeys, and on educational visits, and had their share of concerts and other cultural activities. There were special medical care and treatment to facilitate the education of the deaf and the blind.

For children whose behaviour pointed to emotional disturbance, there were child-guidance clinics, of which the Council maintained seven, others being provided by hospital authorities. The Council was the first local education authority to appoint its own psychologist to investigate cases of special difficulty. This work was later undertaken by a team of educational specialists attached to the inspectorate. In 1962 the Council opened a special class providing therapy and education for young psychotic and autistic children. The Council was the first authority in the country to give financial assistance to the special home tuition groups run by the Society for Autistic Children.

Special schools also included industrial, reformatory and truant schools for juvenile delinquents or children found vagrant.

LCC , London County Council x London County Council

Each county has a Lord Lieutenant as the royal representative. He is concerned with the auxiliary and cadet forces. On his recommendation new justices of the peace are appointed. The counties also have their sheriffs appointed by the monarch to see to the assembling of juries and the carrying out of the judgements of the courts. Commissions of the peace are issued, county justices are appointed, and courts of quarter sessions are regularly held for the trial of cases.

When the County of London was formed in 1888 it was given its own Lord Lieutenant and sheriff, commission of the peace and quarter sessions. The Act of Parliament stated that "all enactments, laws and usages with respect to counties in England and Wales, and to sheriffs, justices and quarter sessions shall so far as circumstances admit, apply to the County of London". The exception was the City of London which already had its own sheriffs, commission of the peace and quarter sessions, while the functions of the Lord Lieutenant were carried out by a group of commissioners presided over by the Lord Mayor.

The Lords Lieutenant of the County of London, appointed by the Sovereign under the provisions of the Militia Act, 1882, were as follows:

1889-1899 Hugh Lupus, 1st Duke of Westminster

1900-1912 Alexander William George, 1st Duke of Fife

1912-1944 Robert Offley Ashburton, 1st Marquess of Crewe

1944-1949 Gerald, 7th Duke of Wellington

1949-1950 Archibald Percival, 1st Earl Wavell

1950-1957 Alan Francis, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke

1957-1965 Harold Rupert Leofric George, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis (who also continued as Lord Lieutenant of Greater London until 1966).

Shortly after the appointment of Lord Crewe, the Clerk of the London County Council, Sir Laurence Gomme, was approached to accept additionally the post of Clerk to the Lieutenancy and to act also as Clerk to the London Justices Advisory Committee, the body responsible for advising the Lord Lieutenant of the names of persons suitable to be recommended by him to the Lord Chancellor for appointment as Justices of the Peace for the County of London. The London County Council concurred in the proposed arrangement (Council Minutes, 11 February 1913, at pages 247-248). It became the practice for each successive Clerk of the Council to be appointed to these positions.

LCC , London County Council x London County Council

London's first civic authority was that of the City of London. The origin of the Corporation of London is unknown, but the initial rights and privileges of the City rested upon a Charter granted by William the Conqueror. The term 'London' was gradually applied to the area adjoining the ancient city, and as a consequence of the need for a central authority to deal with the local government of this ever growing area the term 'metropolis' was defined, and an authority, the Metropolitan Board of Works, was set up in 1855 to deal with many of the services common to the whole area. In 1888, as a result of the Local Government Act, the area of the City and the metropolis was constituted the 'Administrative County of London' and the London County Council was established as the central authority. The 'Administrative County' consisted of the City of London and the twenty-eight metropolitan boroughs; while a 'County of London' was also constituted, excluding the City of London, for certain ceremonial and judicial purposes; for example, a Lord Lieutenant was appointed, while in the City this function is carried out by the Lord Mayor. Those parts of Middlesex, Kent and Surrey that were part of the Metropolis were taken out of those counties and added to the County of London.

The City of London and the twenty-eight borough councils were independent of the County Council, and had complete jurisdiction over certain fields within their individual areas. There were many case in which cooperation and consultation took place between the various London local government authorities. The principal instances in which the County Council had control over the Metropolitan Borough Councils were: sanctioning the raising of loans for housing, building, land purchase, street improvements and drainage; making byelaws (although the borough councils had to enforce the byelaws); approval of sewer plans; taking steps if the borough council was not fulfilling statutory obligations; and control over grants. Other bodies which the County Council worked alongside included the Metropolitan Police, the London Passenger Transport Board, the Port of London Authority, the Thames Conservancy Board, the London and Home Counties Joint Electricity Authority and the Metropolitan Water Board.

The London County Council consisted of persons directly elected, every third year, by the local government electorate in the Administrative County, and of aldermen elected by the Council itself. The aldermen retained their seats for six years. The powers and duties of the Council were:

(i) those powers transferred from the Metropolitan Board of Works, including drainage, street improvements, Thames flood prevention, street naming and numbering, bridges and tunnels, fire brigade, slum clearance, supervision of building works and parks and open spaces;

(ii) those powers involved in administrative business transferred from the Justices, including issuing licences for music, dancing and stage plays, mental hospitals, reformatory and industrial schools, county bridges, coroners, weights and measures;

(iii) education, including those powers transferred from the London School Board in 1904;

(iv) those powers transferred from the London Poor Law Authorities in 1930, including the 25 Boards of Guardians, the Metropolitan Asylums Board, Boards of School District Managers and the Central Unemployed Body;

(v) those powers conferred directly by Parliament at various times, including ambulances, mental deficiency, protection of children, licences for cinemas, boxing and wrestling, licences for motor cars, housing, town planning, health services, welfare of the blind, employment agencies and massage establishments.

The first meetings of the Council were held at both the Guildhall in the City and the offices of the Metropolitan Board of Works at Spring Gardens, Trafalgar Square. New headquarters were planned at County Hall. This was situated on the southern bank of the Thames close to Westminster Bridge. The foundations were begun in 1909, the foundation stone was laid in 1912 and the building was formally opened in 1922. In 1937 the administrative staff of the Council numbered 6,000, while the total staff included 18,150 teachers, 2,000 fire fighters, 22,000 hospital staff, 3,000 housing estates workers, 8,200 mental hospital staff, 1,450 park staff, 3,100 public assistance staff and 1,000 main drainage service staff.

In 1957 the Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London was set up under the chairmanship of Sir Edwin Herbert. Their terms of reference were 'to examine the present system and working of local government in the area' and 'to recommend whether any, and if so what, changes in the local government structure and the distribution of local authority functions in the area, or any part of it, would better secure effective and convenient local government'. After nearly three years consideration of these issues the Commission reported in 1960, recommending a radical reorganisation of London's local government. All existing local authorities except the City of London Corporation were to be abolished, a council for Greater London was to be established, and new boroughs were to be created, each within a population range of 100,000 to 250,000. The councils of these new boroughs were to be the primary units of local government and to have the most normal local government functions, including housing, personal health, welfare and children's services, environmental health, roads other than main roads, libraries and functions in relation to education and planning. The council for Greater London was to have certain functions of education and planning, and be the authority for traffic, main roads, refuse disposal, fire and ambulance services; as well as having supplementary powers for housing, parks, entertainments, sewerage and land drainage. When the Bill for the Local Government Act, 1963, based on the Royal Commission report, was introduced into Parliament it was met with considerable opposition. Some amendments were passed, but the Bill was passed into law without major alterations. An Inner London Education Authority was provided so that education could continue to be handled on a wider county level. Thirty-two new London borough councils were established. The first elections for the Greater London Council were held on 9 April 1964. The LCC was to remain in being side by side with the new authority to enable a smooth transfer, until 1 April 1965 on which date the old authority ceased to exist.

The Royal Commission commented that 'nobody studying London Government can fail to be deeply impressed with the achievements of the London County Council. It has given the Administrative County of London a strong and able form of government which makes its standing very high among the municipal governments of the world'.

LCC , London County Council x London County Council

In 1889 the Architect to the Metropolitan Board of Works was transferred to the newly formed London County Council, as the responsibilities of the MBW were being transferred to the LCC. This was later confirmed by the London Building Act 1894, in which the London County Council was given power to appoint a "superintending architect of metropolitan buildings" to oversee the enforcement of regulations outlined in the Act. Actual enforcement would be done by the District Surveyors, who had to make a monthly return to the Council reporting on any new buildings and any infringement of the Act.

The role of the Architect soon developed as the range of structures constructed under order of the Council grew. By 1909 there were 13 Committees dealing with construction works, and 35 sub-committees. The work included the construction of housing (under the Housing of the Working Classes Act 1890), including slum clearance; construction of buildings in connection with the introduction of electricity; construction of educational buildings, from nursery schools to colleges; construction of hospitals and institutions; construction of fire brigade stations; street and road improvements; maintenance and construction of bridges; public parks; Weights and Measures Stations and Gas Meter Testing Stations. The Architect was responsible for overseeing the design and construction of all these buildings.

During the Second World War the District Surveyors were made responsible for all rescue and demolition work on damaged and unsafe buildings, while the Architect's Department manned the control centres and depots of the Rescue Service, assumed responsibility for the provision of air raid shelters for the Council's staff, and ran the War Debris Service to deal with the work of clearing debris resulting from war damage. Training for the Rescue Service was provided at training schools organised and staffed by the department. When the heavy raids started in September 1940 the Rescue Service went into full operation. It was clear that the specialist knowledge of its members enabled them to foresee the behaviour of damaged buildings and to estimate the risks of rescue. By May 1941 the Service has rescued 10,000 live casualties, at the cost of the lives of 34 rescue officers. After 1941 the Service was renamed the Heavy Rescue Service and was brought into line with other civil defence services. Mobile parties of men with cranes and heavy plant were posted at civil defence centres. When flying bomb attacks began the Heavy Rescue Service rescued 7,175 people alive and recovered 2,329 bodies. 64 personnel were injured and 3 killed.

LCC , London County Council x London County Council

When the London County Council became a local education authority it became the largest employer of teachers in the country. In 1902 it had established the London Day Training College in association with the University of London. In 1932 this College passed to the control of the University and became the Institute of Education. The Council founded six emergency training colleges after the Second World War. These colleges were meant to help solve some of the urgent post war problems, offering a one-year course of training, and were closed by 1951.

The decision of the Minister of Education in 1957 to extend the course of teacher training from two to three years led to expansion in the provision of places. Several training colleges in London were enlarged and a new day-training college for mature students (Sidney Webb College) was opened in 1961. In the same year the Council undertook responsibility for the maintenance of two voluntary colleges, one specialising in physical education and the other in training for primary education. By 1964 the Council was administering nine training colleges, all of them constituent colleges of the University of London Institute of Education.

It became clear from 1960 onwards that despite the increased numbers coming from training colleges, the shortage of primary school teachers was likely to become even more acute, largely because the earlier average age of marriage was causing women teachers to leave the profession in greater numbers. The increased birth-rate from 1954 onwards also accentuated the demand for primary teachers. The Council therefore took the initiative in seeking primary school staff from other sources, and started a series of short courses designed to attract into primary teaching married women graduates who had no teaching experience. At about the same time a vigorous publicity campaign was launched by the Council to increase the use of part-time teachers in primary and secondary schools. The Council's efforts met with considerable success, and in the recruitment of part-time teachers other local education authorities followed this example.

The Froebel Society for the Promotion of the Kindergarten System was founded in 1874 in order to provide courses of training for nursery teachers and a recognition and inspection facility for nursery schools. In 1887 the Society created a separate body, the National Froebel Union, in order to validate examinations and set standards for the Froebel Teacher's Certificate. In 1938 the two bodies united to form the National Froebel Foundation.

LCC , London County Council x London County Council

The Council, on its creation in 1889, assumed responsibility for the Metropolitan Fire Brigade maintained by its predecessor, the Metropolitan Board of Works. On 15 August 1904 the name of the brigade was changed to the London Fire Brigade by virtue of Section 46 of the London County Council (General Powers) Act, 1904.

As part of the Second World War emergency organisation, a Regional Fire Officer with a small staff was appointed to co-ordinate the work of fire brigades in the Greater London area. From 18 August 1941 to 31 March 1948, under emergency legislation, the Brigade and the wartime London Auxiliary Fire Service, in common with the brigades of other local authorities, were merged into a National Fire Service under the direction of the Home Office. The Council resumed control of the Brigade from 1 April 1948.

1833: London Fire Engine Establishment began to operate, being a union of brigades formerly run by individual insurance companies.

1836: Society for the Protection of Life from Fire set up, a voluntary society maintaining and manning fire escapes at a number of stations throughout London.

1865: Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act placing responsibility for extinguishing fires and protecting life and property upon MBW. Thus on 1 Jan 1866 Metropolitan Fire Brigade came into existence, commanded by Captain Eyre Massey Shaw (the new brigade was combination of two bodies described above)

1866: London Salvage Corps established by leading insurance companies to protect property rather than life at metropolitan conflagrations.

1889: LCC take over Metropolitan Fire Brigade

1904: Name changed to London Fire Brigade.

1938: Threat of war leads to formation of Auxiliary Fire Service to augment existing brigade; equipment and finance provided by Home Office, training and day to day management closely supervised by London Fire Brigade.

1941: National Fire Service created to unify fire services of entire country; London became one of 11 regions of this Service, the London Fire Brigade and Auxiliary Fire Service being superseded.

1947: Fire Services Act - responsibility for fire brigades placed upon County Councils and County Boroughs nationally.

1948 1 April: London Fire Brigade resumed operations.

1948 1 April: Middlesex County Fire Service came into operation. Before war fire services in county of Middlesex were responsibility of Urban District and Borough authorities, and at an earlier date parish vestries occasionally provided fire engines for local fires.

LCC , London County Council x London County Council

The term 'public control', as used in the Council's organisation, embraced various services of a regulative character, mostly exercised by some form of licensing control. Largely unobtrusive in their operation, and producing no spectacular effects, they were all carried out in the public interest and, in some respects, for the protection of the public or certain sections of it.

Their administration was conditioned by trends in the legislative provisions under which they were operated, by shifts and changes in social usages, and by the development of the Council's policies towards the matters to which they related.

Places used in London for stage plays, music, dancing, film shows, boxing, or wrestling had to be licensed if they were open to the public. The purpose of licensing was to ensure the safety and suitability of the premises and the entertainment. In general, the Council was the entertainment licensing authority for London, but most West End theatres were licensed for stage plays by the Lord Chamberlain.

Fan dancing, nude posing and strip-tease became increasingly popular during the Second World War. In 1940 the Lord Chamberlain convened a conference to consider the tendency towards impropriety on the stage. At first there was an improvement, but it was not maintained. In 1952 the Council decided to prohibit strip-tease in premises in London licensed for music and dancing. Strip-tease shows continued to be given at bogus clubs in the Soho area. In such clubs there was really no effective restriction on public admission, nor was there any intended. Legal proceedings and fines were not an adequate deterrent and more severe penalties were introduced in the London Government Act, 1963.

The cinema remained the most popular form of entertainment licensed by the Council. There were in 1963 over 150 cinemas in London. Safety arrangements were prescribed in detail and updated as new technology was introduced. The Council also had responsibility for the censorship of films, generally accepting the decisions of the British Board of Film Censors.

LCC , London County Council x London County Council

The London County Council assumed responsibility for the general hospitals formerly maintained by the Boards of Guardians and the Special hospitals and institutions formerly maintained by the Metropolitan Asylums Board with effect from 1 April 1930. These hospitals needed much work to modernise, equip and staff them adequately. The Council made great improvements in hospital accommodation and staffing standards. The nursing service had been improved, medical schools established, and a laboratory service built up. These functions were transferred to the Regional Hospitals Boards and Hospital Management Committees under the National Health Service Acts with effect from 5 July 1948. The Council assisted by providing services of supply, engineering and finance for several months after the transfer, until Council officers could be absorbed into the new organisation.

There was also a transfer from the City and the boroughs to the London County Council of health services including maternity and child welfare, health visiting, home help, vaccination and immunisation, and the care of those with tuberculosis. The Council took over 4,843 lay and professional staff, 70 freehold premises, and 252 tenancy arrangements, as well as adding new services such as home nursing, the provision of health centres and the expansion of the ambulance service. The County was divided into nine divisions, each with a divisional health committee, a divisional medical officer, a nursing officer and an administrative officer.

Until the Mental Health Act, 1959, the Council's mental health services were administered centrally from hte County Hall. From October 1960 responsibility for the day-to-day operation of mental health services was delegated to the nine divisional health committees, while other aspects of the work remained under direct central control, for example the provision of hostels and day centres, the medical examination of mentally subnormal persons, the obtaining of hospital beds for them, and the giving of medical evidence to courts and tribunals. Administration of training centres passed to the divisional medical officers; but planning, the formulation of policy, general control over admissions, the allocation of industrial work to centres, and the arranging of transport and home teaching were retained as central responsibilities.

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