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This company operated services over most of Latin America, including Brazil. It absorbed a number of smaller companies. In 1929 the Western Telegraph Company and the Eastern Telegraph Company amalgamated to form Cable and Wireless Ltd.

Matthew Baillie was born on 27 October 1761, at Shots, Lanarkshire, the son of the Revd. James Baillie, minister of the parish and later Professor of Divinity in Glasgow, and his wife Dorothea, sister of William and John Hunter, celebrated anatomists. Baillie was educated at Hamilton Grammar School and then at the University of Glasgow. On the advice of William Hunter, his uncle, he chose medicine as his profession. He moved to London to live with William Hunter in 1779, at the age of eighteen. He obtained an exhibition at Balliol College, Oxford, but found that his most valuable education came during the vacations at Hunter's house in Great Windmill Street, where a lecture theatre and museum adjoined the house. He attended the public lectures given by Hunter, helping in their preparation, carrying out demonstrations, and superintending the dissections undertaken by the students. Hunter supplemented the lectures by privately instructing Baillie.

In 1783 William Hunter died and Baillie inherited £5,000, Hunter's house, theatre, and museum, for a period of 30 years, and a small Scottish estate, Long Calderwood, which he handed over to John Hunter, acknowledging him as the natural heir. (The museum subsequently went to Glasgow.) Baillie took on William Hunter's anatomical lectures and proved a successful teacher. He became particularly interested in every kind of diseased structure. It is said that his demonstrations were

`remarkable for their clearness and precision, ... he possessed a perfect conception of his subject; and imparted it with the utmost plainness and perspicuity to his hearers' (Munk's Roll, vol. II, p.403).

He graduated MB in 1786, and in 1787 he was elected physician to St George's Hospital. In 1789 he obtained his MD, from Oxford, and became Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians the following year. He became a Censor of the College in 1791 and 1796. The advancement of Baillie's career was due in some part to Baillie's connections with the Hunters and through his marriage to Sophia Denman, daughter of Dr Thomas Denman, physician, in 1791. His practice grew considerably. In his consultations `he was famed for the clearness with which he expressed his opinion in simple terms' (DNB, vol. II, p.420).

In 1793 Baillie published the work for which he is famous, The Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body (1793). It was the first book on the subject in English, and the first to make the morbid anatomy a subject itself. Rather than giving the history and symptoms of every case, as had been the trend, Baillie dealt with the morbid appearances of each organ in turn. The work is limited in so far as it discusses the thoracic and abdominal organs and the brain, and leaves untouched the skeleton, muscles, nerves, and spinal cord. He was the first to define cirrhosis of the liver, to distinguish renal cysts from the rare cysts of parasitic hydatids of the kidney, and to challenge the opinion that death was often due to a growth in the heart. There were additional notes describing symptoms that appeared in 1797, whilst a series of engravings to illustrate the book was published in 1799.

Baillie delivered a number of eponymous lectures during his professional career. These included the Goulstonian Lectures in 1794, the Croonian Lectures in 1796, 1797, and 1798, and the Harveian Oration in 1798, all at the Royal College of Physicians. He also wrote papers for the Transactions of the College. His unpublished contributions to clinical medicine were privately printed, posthumously in 1825, and were entitled, Collected Works; Lectures and Observations on Medicine by the Late Matthew Baillie (1825).

His practice extended further throughout the 1790s. This was due in part to Baillie acquiring a large number of patients from the practice of fellow physician Dr Richard Warren, former physician to George III, after his death in 1797, and his friend, Dr David Pitcairn, physician, recommending Baillie to his patients on a temporary secession of practice in 1798. In 1799 he gave up his post at St George's Hospital and his lecturing, and moved to Grosvenor Street to devote himself fully to his practice. For many years Baillie's successful practice ensured £10,000 a year. In 1810 he became physician extraordinary to George III, after being called to consult the Princess Amelia. He also became physician in ordinary to Princess Charlotte, in 1816. Baillie attended the King in his last illness, but declined the baronetcy offered him. For years Baillie worked for sixteen hours a day. Ultimately his large practice overwhelmed him and his health was affected. He was forced to withdraw from all but consultation practice.

Baillie was honoured during his life by election as honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, in 1809. In the same year he was named an Elect of the Royal College of Physicians, London. He also became a Fellow of the Royal Society. Baillie was a member of a great many medical societies and charities, including the Medical and Chirurgical Society of which he was a founder member in 1805, and President in 1808-9.

In 1823 he retired to his country house in Gloucestershire. He died of phthisis on 23 September 1823, at the age of 62, and was buried in Duntisbourne, Gloucestershire. He left a widow, a son and a daughter. His first son had died only aged a few months, in 1792. He is commemorated by a bust and inscription in Westminster Abbey. Baillie bequeathed his books, and drawings to the Royal College of Physicians, with the sum of £300, having already donated his collection of anatomical specimens some years earlier. His wife subsequently presented his gold-headed cane to the College, formerly the property of the eminent Dr John Radcliffe, King William III's physician.

Publications:
The Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body (London, 1793)
Anatomy of the Gravid Uterus, by William Hunter published by Baillie (1794)
A Series of Engravings Tending to Illustrate the Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body (London, 1803)
Collected Works; Lectures and Observations on Medicine by the late Matthew Baillie (privately printed, 1825)

Publications by others about Baillie:
The Life and Works of Matthew Baillie (1761-1823), Franco Crainz (Rome, 1995)

Thomas Bateman was born in Whitby, Yorkshire, on 29 April 1778, the only son of a surgeon. He was educated at two private schools, one at Whitby the other at Thornton, before being apprenticed to an apothecary in Whitby for three years. In 1797 he began his studies in London, at the Windmill Street School of Anatomy, founded by Dr William Hunter, the celebrated anatomist. There he attended the lectures of Matthew Baillie, morbid anatomist. Simultaneously he attended the medical practice of St George's Hospital. He subsequently went to Edinburgh in 1798 to study, and obtained his MD in 1801. The subject of his thesis was Haemorrhoea Petechialis.

Bateman returned to London in 1801, with the purpose of starting in practice and completing his studies. He became a pupil of Dr Robert Willan, a pioneer in the diseases of the skin, at the Carey Street Public Dispensary. In 1804, due to Willan's influence, he was elected physician both at the Dispensary and at the Fever Institution (later the Fever Hospital). In 1805 he was admitted a licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians. Based on his experience at the Fever Institution, between 1804 and 1816, Bateman wrote a series of reports on the diseases of London and the state of the weather. He contributed these papers to the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, which he had jointly established in 1805 with Dr Duncan, junior, of Edinburgh, and Dr Reeve, of Norwich. The reports contributed to the establishment of his reputation, bringing him to the notice of a wider audience. The papers were later collected in one volume and published as Reports on the Diseases of London (1819).

At the Dispensary, under the tutelage of Willan, Bateman began to pay particular attention to diseases of the skin. Willan had been the first to describe these diseases in `a positive scientific manner, without being swayed by theoretical and formulistic conceptions' (DNB, vol. III, p.393), and Bateman followed in his footsteps, extending and perfecting his methodology. With Willan's retirement in 1811, Bateman became the principal authority in London on all affections of the skin. Consequently Bateman built up a large, profitable practice.

In 1813 Bateman published his Practical Synopsis of Cutaneous Diseases According to the Arrangement of Dr Willan (1813), and completed the series of watercolour drawings that Willan had begun. The publication was a great success, and was translated into French, German, and Italian. Its fame reached Russia whereupon the Czar sent Bateman a diamond ring, worth 100 guineas, and requested that copies of all Bateman's future publications be sent to him. Bateman followed up this publication with his Delineations of Cutaneous Diseases, Exhibiting the Characteristic Appearances of the Principal Genera and Species, Comprised in the Classification of Willan, and Completing the Series of Engravings Began by that Author (1817). This publication was particularly important because it contained descriptions of herpes iris (now known as erythema multiforme) and eczema due to external irritation. It also contained descriptions of molluscum contagiosum.

It is said that Bateman was a `skilful physician and excellent medical writer, whose works on skin diseases are still important' (ibid, p.394). Indeed his writings not only show his practical knowledge but also, from the references to ancient and modern writers, his learning. He wrote a number of smaller papers, in addition to the larger works, including all the entries in Abraham Rees's The Cyclopaedia; or Universal Dictionary of Arts, Sciences and Literature (1819) from the letter C onwards, with only the exception of the 'History of Medicine'. He was the first librarian of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society, assisting in the foundation of the library, and compiling its first catalogue.

In 1816 Bateman's health began to suffer, having had since childhood a delicate constitution. He lost the sight in his right eye, and the vision in his left began to be impaired. Unfortunately the use of mercury in his treatment led to an attack of mercurial erethism, which almost cost him his life. Bateman gave a description of the symptoms from which he suffered in the ninth volume of the Medico-Chirurgical Transactions. He rested for several months before returning to work at the Fever Institution in April 1817, due to an outbreak of a severe epidemic of fever in London. In February 1818 however he was forced, due to unremitting ill health, to resign his appointment. The following year he was compelled to resign from the Dispensary. He retired to Yorkshire and died in Whitby, on 9 April 1821, at the age of 42.

Publications:
Practical Synopsis of Cutaneous Diseases According to the Arrangement of Dr Willan (London, 1813)
Delineations of Cutaneous Diseases, Exhibiting the Characteristic Appearances of the Principal Genera and Species, Comprised in the Classification of Willan, and Completing the Series of Engravings began by that Author (London, 1817)
`A Succinct Account of the Contagious Fever of this Country Exemplified in the Epidemic Now Prevailing in London; with Observations on the Nature and Properties of Contagion' (London, 1818)
Reports on the Diseases of London (London, 1819)

Publications by others about Bateman:
Some Account of the Life and Character of the Late Thomas Bateman, MD, FLS, Physician to the Public Dispensary and to the Fever Institution in London James Rumsey (London, 1827)

Sir Thomas Bathurst was born in 1622. He qualified as a Doctor of Medicine (MD), from the University of Leyden (Leiden) 2 July 1659. He was incorporated at Oxford on 17 March 1661, and was admitted a candidate of the Royal College of Physicians on 25 June 1662.

He was later knighted, and it is thought made a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, although evidence of his admission has not been found (Munk's Roll, vol. I, p.306). Bathurst died in 1688.

John Bayly was born in Chichester on 17 February 1735, the son of George Bayly, physician. He was one of twins, his sister dying early in childhood. Bayly himself was a feeble child. He was educated at the grammar school in Lymington, Hampshire, until the age of 12 when he was sent to a tutor in St Albans, where he became proficient in French. He was then tutored in Taunton for three years, before going to study medicine at Edinburgh University. A smallpox inoculation during his first year at Edinburgh affected his health so severely that he was forced to return home to convalesce for six months. He eventually graduated MD at Edinburgh, and in 1758 moved to London where he spent a year in hospital practice.

In 1759 Bayly returned to Chichester, at the age of 24, to become his father's partner in practice. He lived as a bachelor, with his parents, in a house in the East Pallant, Chichester. He remained in practice with his father until the latter's death in 1771. Bayly practiced in an era when the Royal College of Physicians held no jurisdiction in the provinces. The Apothecaries Act (55 Geo.III c.194) which compelled recognised qualifications was not passed until 1815, the year of Bayley's death. Bayly's life as a doctor in the second half of the eighteenth century, was that of

'a young man in a practice covering a large area round Chichester, competing with unlicensed apothecaries and quacks, applying his academic training, and trying to gain experience from the faithful recording of his failures as well as his successes' (Trail & Steer, 1963, p.9).

In 1784 Bayly was one of the pioneers in the establishment of a Public Dispensary in some cottages in Chichester (which became the West Sussex, East Hampshire and Chichester General Infirmary, and eventually the Royal West Sussex Hospital). Bayly had always suffered from ill health and his work as a doctor further exacerbated his weak constitution. This prevented him from direct or active involvement with the Dispensary, the work being undertaken by Dr Thomas Sanden, his cousin. He suffered from almost total deafness in one ear, and was partially sighted in his left eye.

Another professional interest of Bayly's was the relationship between the climate and disease. Throughout the late 1760s and early 1770s he made detailed meteorological observations and linked them with incidences of disease in Chichester.

Bayly had many interests outside of medicine, such as the stage; he was especially keen on Shakespeare's comedies. He also enjoyed poetry, art and music, and was an accomplished flutist. He had a particular interest in theology, and amassed a large library of theological works. Indeed he was a zealous Unitarian during the last thirty years of his life.

Bayly continued to practice until the end of the 1790s when he retired. In his retirement, despite ill health, he enjoyed through the

`society of a very few select friends, the fruits of early study, and the retrospect of maturer years devoted to beneficent exertion' (Sanden, 1816, p.13).

He died on 11 November 1815 at the age of 80, and was buried in the chancel of the church of All Saints in the Pallant, Chichester, on 18 November 1815.

Publications about Bayly:
A Tribute to the Memory of John Bayly, MD, Thomas Sanden (Chichester, 1816)

Russell Brain (1895-1966) was born in Reading, the son of Walter and Edith Brain on 23 October 1895; educated at Mill Hill School, Reading University College and New College, Oxford, originally reading history but after a period with the Friends' Ambulance Unit 1915-1918, returning to study medicine.

Brain held appointments at the London Hospital, first in 1920 then from 1927 until his death; at the Maida Vale Hospital for Epilepsy and Paralysis from 1925 and at Moorfield Eye Hospital between 1930 and 1937.

Brain was President of the Royal College of Physicians from 1950 to 1957. He was knighted in 1952, made Baronet in 1954, Baron in 1962 and elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1964.

He was editor of Brain, the journal of neurology, for many years.

For a detailed account of Brain see Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society volume 14, London 1968, pp 61-82.

William Henry Broadbent was born at Lindley, near Huddersfield, on 23 January 1835, the eldest son of John Broadbent, woollen manufacturer and a prominent Wesleyan. He was educated at Huddersfield College until the age of fifteen, when he entered his father's factory. He spent two years working in the factory, learning the processes of manufacture. In 1852, at the age of seventeen, he decided that he wanted to study medicine and became apprenticed to a Manchester surgeon, and was enrolled at Owens College. He also attended the Manchester Royal School of Medicine, where he progressed well, winning numerous medals. In 1856 he was awarded gold medals in anatomy, physiology, and chemistry, at the first MB London examination. He became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons, and licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries. In 1857 he went to Paris to continue his studies, strengthening his clinical experience, visiting the wards of the Paris hospitals and attending the Ecole de Medecine, and becoming fluent in French. He returned to sit his final MB examination in 1858, and took the gold medal in obstetric medicine and a first class honours degree.

He obtained the post of obstetric officer at St Mary's Hospital, London, in 1858, becoming resident medical officer there in 1859. In 1860 he was appointed pathologist and lecturer on physiology and zoology in the medical school of the hospital, and obtained his MD, London. In the same year he was elected physician to the London Fever Hospital. In 1861 he was appointed lecturer in comparative anatomy in St Mary's Hospital medical school, and became a member of the Royal College of Physicians. In 1863 he was appointed visiting physician to the Western General Dispensary. In 1865 he was made physician in charge of outpatients at St Mary's, and then in 1871 he was appointed full physician, with a lectureship in medicine. It was his work at St Mary's with the outpatients and in the wards, his attention to detail and accuracy in diagnosis, that established his reputation as one of the finest clinical teachers of his day' (Munk's Roll, vol. IV, p.169). He becameboth an investigator of medical problems and... an expert on the treatment of specific diseases' (DNB, 2nd Supplement, vol. I, p.226). His skill and reputation eventually ensured a large, lucrative practice.

Broadbent developed particular interests in neurology and cardiology, and, to a lesser extent, cancer and typhoid. He wrote and lectured extensively on these subjects. An important early work was his book Cancer: A New Method of Treatment (1866), which described his treatment of cases by the injection of acetic acid into the tumour. Despite some initial good results Broadbent discontinued this method when later outcomes proved unsatisfactory. One paper to attract attention was his Sensori-motor Ganglia and Association of Nerve Nuclei', which appeared in the British and Foreign Medical Clinical Review (1866). In this he explained the immunity from paralysis of bilaterally associated muscles in hemiplegia and advancedBroadbent's hypothesis', in which he explained the unequal distribution of paralysis in face, trunk, arm and leg, in the ordinary form of hemiplegia. The essential principle has remained widely applicable to neurological questions, and to the solution of problems in physiology, pathology, and psychology.

Broadbent was also responsible for valuable work on aphasia. In On the Cerebral Mechanism of Speech and Thought', which appeared in the Transactions of the Royal Medical Chirurgical Society (1872), he was the first to propose the notion of a separate centre for conception of ideation. One of his most important works was Heart Disease, With Special Reference to Prognosis and Treatment (1897), written with his eldest son, John Francis Harpin Broadbent. He had been influenced by Francis Sibson, the eminent cardiologist, with whom he had worked at St Mary's in his early days at the hospital, assisting Sibson on autopsies, with a particular interest in studying diseases of the chest. He became aleading authority' on the subject (ibid, p.227). He also contributed to advances in the treatment of typhoid fever, deprecating the 'do nothing' treatment and enforcing careful dieting, nursing, and hydro-therapeutic measures. He also gave a number of eponymous lectures, including the Lettsomian Lectures at the Medical Society of London, in 1874, the Harveian lectures, to the Harveian Society, in 1884, and was Croonian Lecturer and Lumleian Lecturer, in 1887 and 1891 respectively, at the Royal College of Physicians.

In 1869 he became a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. From 1872 Broadbent moved to Seymour Street, where his private consultant practice continued to expand, chiefly among the upper classes. In 1879 he retired from his post of physician to the London Fever Hospital, becoming consultant physician. In the 1880s he took on the role of examiner in medicine to the universities of London, 1883, and Cambridge, 1888.

In 1892 Broadbent moved to a larger address in Brook Street in order to accommodate his huge practice, which had continued to thrive. It is said that `he refused twice as much work as he could undertake' (ibid), and in 1891 his income had exceeded 13,000 pounds. His patients soon included the royal family, as in 1892 Broadbent was appointed physician in ordinary to the Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII, receiving a baronetcy the following year. In 1896 he retired from the active service of St Mary's Hospital, becoming honorary consulting physician. In this year he also became consulting physician for the Victoria Hospital for Sick Children, and the New Hospital for Women. It was also in 1896 that he became physician extraordinary to Queen Victoria, and in 1901, on her death, physician in ordinary to King Edward VII and the new Prince of Wales, later King George V, whom he had attended during an attack of typhoid fever ten years earlier. In 1901 he was made KCVO (Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order).

Broadbent offered his services to a number of institutions throughout his professional career, playing a prominent part in public movements affecting the prevention of disease. He had served as a member of the Royal Commission on Fever Hospitals in 1881. He was greatly involved with the Royal College of Physicians, giving several eponymous lectures and serving as Censor in 1889, and as Senior Censor in 1895, although he was defeated in his run for the presidency in 1896. Other commitments included chairing the committee for organising the National Association for the Prevention of Consumption, in 1898, chairing the organising council of the British Congress on Tuberculosis, which met in London in July 1901, and chairing the advisory committee for King Edward VII's Sanatorium at Midhurst, to which he became a consulting physician. He also became consulting physician to the King Edward VII Hospital for Officers. Broadbent was always a generous subscriber to the British Medical Benevolent Fund, of which he was secretary, 1864-72, treasurer, 1872-1900, and subsequently President in 1900.

He was an Honorary Member and Fellow of many medical societies, both at home and abroad. He had been made President of the Harveian Society, in 1875, the Medical Society, in 1881, the Clinical Society, in 1887, and the Neurological Society, in 1896. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1897, in recognition of his scientific contributions. Abroad he was an Honorary Member of the Verein fur Innere Medicin, Berlin, the Gesellschaft fur Innere Medicin und Kinderheilkunde, Vienna, the Societe Medicale de Geneve, and the Imperial Society of Constantinople. He was chief organiser and first President of the Entente Cordiale Medicale, in 1904, and was honoured with their Grand Cross and Insignia of Commander of the Legion of Honour, at a banquet held in Paris in 1905. Broadbent also received the honorary degrees of Doctor of Laws (LLD), from the universities of Edinburgh, St Andrews, Montreal, and Toronto, between 1898-1906, and Doctor of Science (DSc), from Leeds University in 1904.

Broadbent married Eliza Harpin in 1863, and they had three sons and three daughters. One of the sons was Sir John Francis Harpin Broadbent and another Walter Broadbent, both of whom became physicians, and later fellows of the Royal College of Physicians. Broadbent died in London of influenza, on 10 July 1907. He was buried in the parish church of Wendover, Buckinghamshire, where he had his country house.

Publications:
Cancer: A New Method of Treatment (London, 1866)
The Practice of Medicine, revised by Sir William Broadbent (7th ed., London 1875)
The Pulse (largely a reproduction of the Croonian Lectures, 1887) (London, 1890)
Heart Disease, With Special Reference to Prognosis and Treatment, with John Francis Harpin Broadbent (London, 1897)

Publications by others about Broadbent:
Selections from the Writings, Medical and Neurological, of Sir William Broadbent, Walter Broadbent (ed.) (London, 1908)
The Life of Sir William Broadbent KCVO, FRS, M.E. Broadbent (ed.) (London, 1909)

Sir James Clark was born on 14 December 1788, in Cullen, Banffshire. He was educated first at the parish school in Fordyce, and then at Aberdeen University where he graduated MA. It was his initial intention to pursue a career in law but he found he had a preference for medicine. He went to Edinburgh to study, and in 1809 became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. Immediately he entered the medical service of the Navy. He served at Haslar Hospital until July 1810, when he was appointed as assistant surgeon aboard HMS Thistle. The 'Thistle' was wrecked off the coast of New Jersey. Clark returned to England, was promoted to surgeon, and joined the HMS Collobree, which was also wrecked. He served on two more vessels until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, and was then placed on half pay. During his time at sea he had sailed to Canada, North America and the West Indies. He returned to Edinburgh to continue his studies at the University, graduating MD in 1817.

In 1818 Clark took a phthisical patient to the south of France and to Switzerland, making observations on the effects of the climate upon phthisis (pulmonary consumption). He collected meteorological and other data with a view to studying their influences on that and other diseases. In 1819 he settled in Rome, the resort frequented by many of the higher echelons of English society, where he built up a practice and a steadily increasing reputation over the next seven years. One of his patients was the poet John Keats, who was far advanced in his suffering from phthisis, and died in Rome in 1821. Whilst there Clark had published his Medical Notes on Climate, Diseases, Hospitals, and Medical Schools in France, Italy, and Switzerland, comprising an Inquiry into the Effects of a Residence in the South of Europe in Cases of Pulmonary Consumption (1822). During the summers he visited various European centers and acquainted himself further with the English aristocracy. In particular he visited the mineral springs and universities of Germany. On such a visit to Carlsbad he met Prince Leopold, later to become King of the Belgians, who was greatly interested in Clark's examinations of the waters. When Clark returned to England the Prince appointed him his physician.

Clark returned to London in 1826, and was admitted a Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians. In 1820, on a visit to London from Rome, he had been admitted an Extra-Licentiate. He was appointed physician to St George's Infirmary, a small dispensary. His progress in London was slow but steady. His practice gradually built up, whilst he continued his research into the climate and phthisis. In 1829 appeared his 'best and most important work' (Munk's Roll, vol. III, p.224), The Influence of Climate in the Prevention and Cure of Chronic Diseases, more particularly of the Chest and Digestive Organs (1829). In it he gave a clearer, more correct, view of the powers of climate and of mineral waters in the treatment of disease, than had before then existed. Accordingly this work established Clark's reputation in London, with the public and with members of his profession. He employed the use of mineral waters in the treatment of disease in his practice. Clark became both famous and popular for the care he took in his prescriptions, masking the nauseous taste of the drugs for his patients.

In 1834 he obtained, via recommendation by the King of the Belgians, the appointment of physician to the Duchess of Kent. The appointment involved the medical care of Princess Victoria. Accordingly, this led to a large increase in his business and reputation. Upon Queen Victoria's accession to the throne in 1837, Clark was appointed the Queen's physician in ordinary, and was created baronet.

Unfortunately his prosperity and success were undermined by the case of Lady Flora Hastings. In 1839 Clark was called upon to express his opinion on her condition, when the growth of a fatal abdominal tumour led to suspicion that she was pregnant. Clark's erroneous opinion, possibly owing to his relative inexperience of the diseases of women due to his history as a naval surgeon, appeared to give support to the slander that was spread by others. He subsequently became unpopular with the public and lost many of his patients. It took years for the effects of the case to dissipate, but eventually it was widely understood that he had been wrongly blamed. Indeed it seems that if Clark's advice had been followed, Lady Flora's name would have been cleared. In the meantime, despite his professional mistake, he continued to be trusted at court. Upon the Queen's marriage in 1840 Clark was also appointed physician to the Prince Consort, Prince Albert, who also held him in high esteem. He became the person to whom all queries concerning medical matters and polity were addressed. It is stated that Clark 'was always ready with advice... and wise, carefully-considered counsel' (ibid, p.226). He also served on several Royal Commissions.

Outside of his role at court, Clark was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1832. He served on the Senate of the University of London, 1838-65. Indeed it is said that to him the medical section of the University owes its shape and usefulness (ibid). He also played an influential role in the establishing of the Royal College of Chemistry, in 1845. Clark also served on the General Medical Council, 1858-60.

Clark retired in 1860, giving up his practice at Brook Street, Grosvenor Square, where he had lived since 1841, and his duties as physician to the monarch. He moved to Bagshot Park, Surrey, which was lent to him by Queen Victoria for his life. He had married Barbara Stephen in September 1820, and they had had a son in July 1821. His wife, known to Clark as Minnie, died in 1862. Clark was 81 when he died at Bagshot Park on 29 June 1870. He was buried at Kensal Green on 4 July 1870.

Publications:
Lettera al. Prof. Tommasini intorno alle sue Osservationi sulla Scuola Medico-clinica di Edinburgo (Rome, 1822)
Medical Notes on Climate, Diseases, Hospitals, and Medical Schools in France, Italy, and Switzerland, comprising an Inquiry into the effects of a residence in the South of Europe in cases of Pulmonary Consumption (London, 1822)
The Influence of Climate in the Prevention and Cure of Chronic Diseases, more particularly of the Chest and Digestive Organs (London, 1829)
Treatise on Pulmonary Consumption comprehending an Inquiry into the Causes, Nature, Prevention, and Treatment of Tuberculous and Scrofulous Diseases in General (London, 1835)
Remarks on Medical Reform (London, 1842)
Memoir of John Conolly, MD, comprising a Sketch of the Treatment of the Insane in Europe and America (London, 1869)

Unknown

Vincent Zachary Cope was born in Kingston-upon-Hull on 14 February 1881, the son of Thomas John Gilbert Cope, a Methodist minister. He was educated at Westminster City School, where he was head boy, before going to London University where he graduated BA in 1899. He entered St Mary's Hospital Medical School with a scholarship to study medicine. In 1905 he graduated MB BS with honours in surgery and forensic medicine, and proceeded MD in 1907. He became a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of England in 1909.

Cope took the post of demonstrator of anatomy at St Mary's Medical School, before becoming surgeon at the hospital in 1911. It is said that 'his reputation as a clinical teacher at the bedside brought a large attendance at his rounds' (The Lancet, 1975, p.115). In 1912 he also became surgeon to the Bolingbroke Hospital.

During the First World War, 1914-18, he served in the Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC), as a Captain and temporary Major, and was attached to the 3rd London General Hospital. He saw active service in the Middle East, 1916-19, and was mentioned in dispatches in 1918. His Surgical Aspect of Dysentery (1921) was based on his experiences in Mesopotamia. However his major contribution to medical literature was his Early Diagnosis of the Acute Abdomen (1922). This was arguably one of the 'most successful books in surgery' (ibid). It was translated into 5 languages and reached its 14th edition in 1972.

He was Hunterian professor of the Royal College of Surgeons four times, between 1916 and 1927, and delivered their Arris and Gale lecture, in 1922, as well as most of their other lectures. He became a member of the Board of Examiners of the College, and was also an examiner in surgery to London, Birmingham, and Manchester universities. Cope became a member of the Council of the British Medical Association (BMA), 1938-45, and later became vice-president. He was prominent in the Marylebone Division of the BMA.

During the Second World War he was a Sector Officer of the Emergency Medical Service. In 1939 he published Some Principles of Minor Surgery. It was also during the War that he became a member of the Medical Planning Commission of the BMA, and in 1940 a member of the Council of the Royal College of Surgeons, and later vice-president. Between 1940 and 1943 he was Chairman of the Marylebone Division of the BMA. From 1943-45 he was engaged on a regional hospital survey of South West England. Cope retired from the Bolingbroke Hospital in 1946, although he remained consulting surgeon.

In the postwar years he was a successful chairman of a number of influential inquiries and committees. His committee work was extensive and amongst the subjects he worked on were medical education, proprietary medicines, the British Pharmacopoeia, physical medicine, and medical war relief. Cope became a member of the General Practice Review Committee of the BMA, when it was set up in 1950. In 1951 he took part in an inquiry into the national registration of medical auxiliaries, presiding over eight committees which covered different branches of the auxiliary services. It became known as the Cope Committee.

Cope was made honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine in 1951, having served for many years as honorary librarian. He was also involved with the Medical Society of London and became its president. He edited two clinical volumes of the Official History of the War of 1939-45, on medicine and pathology (1952) and on surgery (1953). Cope was knighted for his public service in 1953, his name appearing in the first New Year's Honours List of Queen Elizabeth II's reign. In 1955 he became Chairman of the National Medical Manpower Committee.

During his retirement Cope was much occupied by the writing of medical history. He remained in the service of St Mary's Hospital throughout his life, becoming consulting surgeon in these years. He published two histories of the medical school at St Mary's, in 1954 and 1955, several biographies of important medical figures including one on Florence Nightingale, in 1958, and an account of the Royal College of Surgeons, in 1959. In 1961, for his long and distinguished contribution to the history of medicine, he was made honorary Fellow of the Faculty of the History of Medicine and Pharmacology of the Society of Apothecaries. Four years later he published A History of the Acute Abdomen (1965).

Outside of medicine, Cope was devoted to music and was a keen motoring enthusiast, owning his own car from 1916 onwards. He was twice married. In 1909 he married Agnes Dora Newth. She died in 1922, and in 1923 he married Alice May Watts, who died in 1944. A daughter of his second marriage survived him.

Cope died in Oxford on 28 December 1964 at the age of 93.

Publications:
Surgical Aspect of Dysentery (1921)
Early Diagnosis of the Acute Abdomen (1922)
Actinomycosis (London, 1938)
Some Principles of Minor Surgery (1939)
Pioneers in Acute Abdominal Surgery (London, 1939)
Reports. (Cmd. 8188) [of the Committee on Medical Auxiliaries] (London, 1951) Cope (chairman)
The Versatile Victorian: The Life of Sir Henry Thompson, Bt, 1820-1904 (London, 1951)
Medicine and Pathology (London, 1952) and Surgery (London, 1953) (History of the Second World War. UK Medical Series) Cope (ed.)
William Cheselden, 1688-1752 (Edinburgh, 1953)
The History of St Mary's Hospital Medical School: Or, a Century of Medical Education (London, 1954)
A Hundred Years of Nursing at St Mary's Hospital, Paddington (London, 1955)
Sidelights on the History of Medicine (London, 1957)
Florence Nightingale and the Doctors (London, 1958)
The Royal College of Surgeons of England: A History (London, 1959)
Sir John Tomes: A Pioneer of British Dentistry (London, 1961)
Six Disciples of Florence Nightingale (London, 1961)
Some Famous General Practitioners and Some Other Medical Historical Essays (London, 1961)
A History of the Acute Abdomen (London, 1965)
Almroth Wright: Founder of Modern Vaccine-Therapy (British Men of Science Series) (London, 1966)

No biographical details of Mrs Alice Corffilde (fl. 1649) are known.

Charles Dodds (1899 - 1973) was Professor of Biochemistry at the Middlesex Hospital 1925 - 1965, director of the Courtauld Institute of Biochemistry 1928 - 1965 and President of the Royal College of Physicians 1962 - 1966. Accounts of his life and works are given in MS3120, Munk's Roll vol.VI pp.151-3, and Anon., "Sir Charles Dodds: a pioneer in medicine and biochemistry", in New Scientist vol 6 (1959) pp.234-5.

Sir David Ferrier was born on 13 January 1843 at Woodside, near Aberdeen, the son of David Ferrier, businessman. He was educated at the local grammar school before entering Aberdeen University in 1859. He graduated MA in 1863 with first class honours in classics and philosophy, and then spent the next six months in Europe. Whilst abroad he spent some time studying psychology at Heidelberg. In 1865 he went to Edinburgh University to study medicine, graduating MB in 1868.

From 1868-70 Ferrier was assistant to a general practitioner, William Edmund Image, in Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk. During this time Ferrier prepared his MD thesis on corpora quadrigemina, for which he was awarded a gold medal. In 1870 he moved to London and was lecturer on physiology at the Middlesex Hospital for a short time. The following year he was appointed demonstrator of physiology at King's College Hospital, and in 1872 succeeded to the chair of forensic medicine.

In 1873 Ferrier began his research into electrical excitation of the brain. He proved through his experiments the existence of the localization of the cerebral functions, a fact hitherto disputed. Indeed he was the first to map the cerebral cortex, from what had been an unknown area. Ferrier demonstrated that the combined areas of excitable points on the brain's surface were more extensive, and that more movements throughout the body could be elicited, in an ape than in animals less like human beings. He further inferred, through his research on monkeys, that conditions of disease in the brain could be effectively dealt with surgically, to a far greater extent than had been done previously.

Ferrier undoubtedly made a great contribution to modern cerebral surgery, enabling relief for patients suffering from certain forms of brain tumour and brain injury, although his animal experiments brought him opposition from anti-vivisectionists. His Croonian Lectures to the Royal Society in 1874 and 1875 were on the subject of his early research, as was his treatise, The Functions of the Brain (1876; 2nd ed. 1886), which was translated into several languages.

In 1874 he was elected assistant physician both at King's College Hospital and at the West London Hospital. He was elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1876. In the following year he also became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, and in 1878 delivered the College's Goulstonian Lectures on the subject of localization of cerebral disease. Ferrier was an active member of the Neurological Society, and was one of the founders and editors of the journal Brain when it started in 1878. In 1881 he became physician in charge of outpatients at King's College Hospital. At this time he was also on the staff at the National Hospital for the Paralysed and Epileptic.

Ferrier was a member of the Metropolitan Counties Branch of the British Medical Association from 1888-89. In 1889 the post of Professor of Neuropathology was created for him at King's College London. The following year he was made full physician at King's College Hospital. Also in 1890 he was awarded the Royal Medal of the Royal Society, and in 1891 the Cameron Prize of Edinburgh University. In 1894 he was president of the Neurological Society, having been a member of the council of the society for a number of years. At the Royal College of Physicians he delivered the Harveian Oration in 1902, and acted as senior censor in 1907. In 1908 he was appointed emeritus professor at King's College London.

Ferrier was knighted in 1911. In 1913 he was president of the Medical Society of London. He was awarded honorary degrees from the universities of Cambridge and Birmingham.

Ferrier had married Constance Waterlow in 1874, and they had a son and a daughter. Ferrier died in London on 19 March 1928 at his home in Kensington. An eponymous lecture was posthumously endowed at the Royal Society in 1929, and at the Royal Society of Medicine a Ferrier memorial library was founded and endowed.

Publications
Historical Notes on Poisoning (London, 1872)
The Localisation of Cerebral Disease (Goulstonian Lectures, 1878) (London, 1878)
The Functions of the Brain (London, 1876; 2nd ed. 1886)
Principles of Forensic Medicine, William Augustus and David Ferrier (London, 6th ed. 1888)
Cerebral Localisation (London, 1890)
The Heart and Nervous System (Harveian Oration, 1902) (London, 1902)
On Tabes Dorsalis (Lumleian Lectures, 1906) (London, 1906)

The Gloucestershire Medical Society was founded by Edward Jenner and his colleagues in 1788.

Born, [1670]; began his education at the nonconformist academy of Samuel Cradock BD at Wickhambrook, Suffolk; went to London, where he lodged with Edward Hulse MD of Aldermanbury; attended the University of Utrecht in 1692, presumably to study medicine; decided on a career in the church and entered St Edmund Hall, Oxford; 1697; domestic chaplain to Charles Talbot, Duke of Shrewsbury, who presented him with the living of Heythorpe rectory, Oxfordshire; Archdeacon of Oxford, 1704; accompanied Shrewsbury to Ireland, following Shrewsbury 's appointment as Lord Lieutenant, 1713; beneficiary of the Hanoverian succession; Bishop of Kilmore, 1715; Archbishop of Cashel, 1727; died, 1729.

Baptised, 1648; educated University of Leiden, 1667-1669 and Utrecht, 1669-1670; moved to Amsterdam, where he joined the Collegium Medicum and entered into a joint practice; Physician to the Dutch garrison at Grave, 1674;
Moved to London, 1675; licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians (RCP), London, 1683; engaged in lengthy court procedures against the RCP over charges of malpractice, 1697-1700; died, 1715 or 1716.

Leonard George Guthrie was born in Kensington, London, on the 7 February 1858, second son of Thomas Anstey Guthrie. He was educated at King's College School, before entering Magdalen College, Oxford, where he studied classics. He graduated MA in 1880. He then chose to study medicine, and completed his clinical studies at St Bartholomew's Hospital, qualifying in 1886. He took the diplomas of both the Royal College of Surgeons and the Society of Apothecaries.

Guthrie obtained house appointments at the Paddington Green Children's Hospital and the Great Northern Central Hospital. Children's diseases became one of his chief interests, along with nervous disorders. His work as a paediatrician was greatly respected and it was noted that he was `adept in gaining the confidence of his young patients' (Munk's Roll, 1955, p.421). He joined the staff of the Hospital for Diseases of the Nervous System in 1888, whilst the hospital was still situated at Regent's Park. He was also appointed assistant physician to the North-West London Hospital. He graduated MD from Oxford in 1893. In 1900 he became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. He was subsequently made full physician at the Paddington Green Children's Hospital and the Hospital for Diseases of the Nervous System, Maida Vale, having stayed with the hospital after its move from Regent's Park in 1903.

Guthrie's major publication was Functional Nervous Disorders of Childhood (1907), which became a minor classic. He was FitzPatrick Lecturer at the Royal College of Physicians in 1907-08, and chose to lecture on 'Contributions to the Study of the Precocity in Children' and the 'History of Neurology'. He was greatly interested in the history of medicine; indeed Guthrie, according to a colleague, was a man who `loved young people and old things' (BMJ, 1919, p.29).

Guthrie contributed chapters to Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt's A System of Medicine (1896-99; 1905-11), and to the Diseases of Children (1913), edited by Archibald Edward Garrod, Frederick Eustace Batten and James Hugh Thursfield. He was made secretary of the Royal College of Physicians committee for the revision of the Nomenclature of Diseases (5th ed. 1917). He also served as president of the Harveian Society, and of the Section for the Study of Diseases in Children of the Royal Society of Medicine.

During the First World War, 1914-18, he served on the staff of Lord Knutsford's Hospitals for Neurasthenic Officers. He was also selected to examine medical men under the Ministry of National Service. Guthrie was senior physician to both the Paddington Green Children's Hospital and the Maida Vale Hospital at the time of his death. He had also recently been appointed examiner in medicine to Oxford University, and member of the Council of the Royal College of Physicians.

He died on 24 December 1918, after an accident on one of London's tube railways, and was buried at Kensal Green Cemetery.

Publications:
Interstitial Nephritis in Childhood (London, 1897)
Functional Nervous Disorders in Childhood (London, 1907)
Contributions to the Study of Precocity in Children, and the History of Neurology (London, 1921)
The Nomenclature of Diseases, Leonard George Guthrie (ed.) (London, 1917, 5th ed.)

Sir Henry Head was born in Stoke Newington, London, on 4 August 1861, the eldest son of Henry Head, a Lloyd's insurance broker of Quaker origin. Head was educated at Grove House School, Tottenham, and then Charterhouse, before entering Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1880. He graduated BA in Natural Sciences in 1884, with first class honours. He spent the next two years at the German University in Prague under the direction of Ewald Hering, working on the physiology of respiration. Head returned to Cambridge to study physiology and anatomy, and went to University College Hospital in London for his clinical work. He qualified MB in 1890, and MD in 1892.

Head obtained junior positions at University College Hospital, the City of London Hospital for Diseases of the Chest (later renamed the City of London Hospital for Diseases of the Heart and Lungs), the National Hospital, Queen Square, and the County Mental Hospital, Rainhill, Liverpool. He published his MD thesis on `Disturbances of Sensation, with Especial Reference to the Pain of Visceral Diseases' in the neurological journal Brain, between 1893 and 1896. His thesis, based upon patients he had seen at University College Hospital and the National Hospital, established 'Head's Areas', the regions of increased cutaneous sensitivity associated with visceral diseases. In 1894 he became a member of the Royal College of Physicians. He was appointed registrar at the London Hospital in 1896, and was elected assistant physician four months later. He subsequently became physician, and then consulting physician to the Hospital. In 1897 he was awarded the Moxon Medal by the Royal College of Physicians, for his research into clinical medicine. Head became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1899. The following year he became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, and in 1901 delivered the Goulstonian Lectures to the College.

In 1903 he made observations on the sensory changes following section and regeneration of the radial and external cutaneous nerves. He instructed that his own nerves of his left arm were cut and sutured for this experiment. An eminent surgeon of the London Hospital, James Sherren, carried out the operation. From the results Head elaborated the conceptions of protopathic and epicritic sensibility. He published the results in Brain in 1908. In the same year he was awarded the Royal Medal of the Royal Society for his work on neurology. He was also awarded the Marshall Medal of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society for his original research. He became editor of Brain from 1910-25, and also wrote a number of articles for Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt's A System of Medicine. In 1911 he delivered the Croonian Lectures at the Royal College of Physicians.

During the First World War, 1914-18, Head was civilian consultant to the Empire Hospital for Officers, Vincent Square, where officers suffering from wounds to the nervous system were sent. He and his colleague George Riddoch produced a series of papers on the effects of gross injuries to the spinal cord. This work was important in laying the foundations for the management of traumatic paraplegia, which Riddoch developed during the Second World War and led to the saving of many lives. After World War One the possibility of Head becoming the first professor of medicine at the London Hospital was discussed, although ultimately nothing came of the proposal. In 1919, at the first signs of Parkinson's disease, Head retired from London first to Dorset, where he was the neighbour of the poet and author Thomas Hardy, and then to Reading. Head himself was greatly interested in literature, particularly eighteenth century poetry and prose, and privately published a collection of his own verse and translations of German verses, in Destroyers and Other Verses (1919).

In 1920 he was president of the Section of Neurology at the annual meeting of the British Medical Association held at Cambridge, and in the same year was elected an honorary fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. The results of his self-experiments on sensation between 1903 and 1907, which were previously published in Brain, along with other articles by Head and five of his colleagues were published in Studies in Neurology (1920). In 1921 he delivered the Royal Society's Croonian Lecture. Head's last important publication was Aphasia and Kindred Disorders of Speech. It appeared in two volumes in 1926, and was based on the examination of a large number of men suffering from gunshot wounds to the brain.

In 1927 he was knighted. His other honours include receiving honorary degrees from the universities of Edinburgh and Strasbourg. It has been said of Head that he ranked with the great English neurologists' and wasa teacher of infectious enthusiasm and vitality, who combined a scientific outlook with a vivid imagination' (Munk's Roll, 1955, p.422). His contribution to the medical profession included `important advances in respiratory regulation, sensory physiology and the analysis of the aphasias' (Breathnach, 1991, p.107).

Head married Ruth Mayhew in 1904. She became a respected author and wrote several books including two novels and an anthology of Thomas Hardy's writings. She died in 1939. Head died eighteen months later at Reading on 8 October 1940. He left the greater part of his fortune to the Royal Society, for the advancement of medicine.

Publications:
Destroyers, and Other Verses (London, 1919)
Studies in Neurology, Henry Head, with W.H.R. Rivers, J. Sherren, G. Holmes, T. Thompson, & G. Riddoch (London, 1920)
Aphasia and Kindred Disorders of Speech (Cambridge, 1926)

John Latham was born on 29 December 1761, at Gawsworth, Cheshire, the eldest son of the Rev. John Latham, vicar of Siddington, Cheshire. Latham acquired his early education at Manchester Grammar School. In 1778 he entered Brasenose College, Oxford. He proceeded BA in 1782, and MA in 1784. Between 1782 and 1784 he studied medicine at St Bartholomew's Hospital, London. In 1784 he began to practice medicine in Manchester, where he was elected physician to the town's infirmary. In 1786 he resigned the office and returned to Oxford where he graduated MB in the same year. The following year he was appointed physician to the Radcliffe Infirmary and graduated MD in 1788.

In 1788 Latham moved to London and set up his home and practice in Bedford Row. His exertions on settling in the capital were excessive, and he consequently established a large, lucrative practice. He was admitted a candidate of the Royal College of Physicians in the same year, and became a fellow in 1789. It was also in 1789 that he was elected physician of the Middlesex Hospital and the Magdalen Hospital. From his election as fellow he played an active roll in the life of the College, for example acting as censor on several occasions between 1790 and 1807. In 1791 he published A Plan of a Charitable Institution to be Established on the Sea Coast. In 1792 Latham undertook to arrange the College library, the result proved so satisfactory that his colleagues voted him the sum of £100. In 1793 he resigned from the Middlesex and became physician to St Bartholomew's Hospital.

Latham gave several of the eponymous lectures of the Royal College of Physicians, including the Goulstonian Lectures in 1793, the Harveian Oration in 1794, and the Croonian Lectures in 1795. In 1795 he was appointed physician extraordinary to the Prince of Wales. The following year Latham published On Rheumatism and Gout, in which he detailed an elaborate treatment and argued that neither acute rheumatism nor gout were hereditary. In 1802 Latham retired from his position at St Bartholomew's.

In 1807, at the age of 46, Latham retired to the country, due to exhaustion brought on by his intense labour. It was believed that he was consumptive and that he might die. However away from his professional business he regained his health and eventually recovered. He returned to London and began a more moderate practice, based in Harley Street.

In 1811 Latham published Facts and Opinions concerning Diabetes, and authored many medical papers which were published in the Royal College of Physicians's Medical Transactions. His writings `show that the parts of physic in which he excelled were clinical observation and acquaintance with the materia medica' (DNB, 1892, p.166). Latham was President of the College from 1813-19. In 1816 he founded the Medical Benevolent Society. When the Prince of Wales ascended to the throne as George IV in 1820, Latham was reappointed physician extraordinary.

In 1829 Latham finally left London and retired to Bradwall Hall in Cheshire. He had married Mary Mere in 1874, and they had had three sons. Their second son Peter Mere Latham, born in 1789, also became a physician, whilst the first and third sons, John and Henry, were both poetical writers. Latham died on 20 April 1843 at the age of 81, after suffering from stones in the bladder.

Publications:
Diatribae duae encaemicae coram Collegio Regali Medicorum Londinensi, scilicet Oratio Harveiana et Praelectio Crooniana (London, 1795?)
On Rheumatism and Gout: A Letter Addressed to Sir George Baker (London, 1796)
The New Pharmacopoeia of the Royal College of Physicians (index by John Latham) (London, 1796, 7th edition; 1801 8th edition)
Facts and Opinions concerning Diabetes (London, 1811)

Peter Mere Latham was born in London on 1 July 1789, the second son of John Latham, physician. He was first educated at the free school of Sandbach, Cheshire, and then from 1797 at Macclesfield Grammar School. He entered Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1806. He graduated BA in 1810 and began his medical studies at St Bartholomew's Hospital and the Carey Street Public Dispensary under the tutelage of Thomas Bateman, dermatologist and physician. Whilst studying at the Dispensary he met the celebrated Richard Bright, physician, with whom he established a life-long friendship. He proceeded MA in 1813, and then MB in 1814. Latham took a house in Gower Street and in 1815 was appointed physician to the Middlesex Hospital. In 1816 he delivered a course of lectures on the practice of physic in London. He graduated MD in the same year.

Latham was elected a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1818, and delivered the College's Goulstonian Lectures the following year. In 1820 he was a censor for the College, and held that office again in 1833 and 1837. In March 1823 he and Peter Mark Roget, fellow physician and savant, were asked by the government to undertake the investigation of an epidemic disorder then rife in the Millbank Penitentiary. They found the epidemic to be scurvy and dysentery, which they concluded was due to an insufficient diet. Consequently they recommended for the prisoners at least one solid meal a day, better bread, and 3lbs of meat every fortnight. Latham subsequently published An Account of the Disease lately prevalent at the General Penitentiary (1825).

In 1824 Latham resigned from the Middlesex Hospital and was appointed physician to St Bartholomew's Hospital. In 1827 he delivered the Royal College of Physician's Lumleian Lectures. Latham published his Essays on some Diseases of the Heart' in the Medical Gazette (1828). In them he maintained that administering mercury until it produced salivation was essential for the cure of pericarditis. Latham's particular interest in heart diseases had been encouraged by the recent invention of the stethoscope by the French physician Laennec. In 1836 Latham was elected joint lecturer on medicine, with fellow physician Dr (later Sir) George Burrows, at St Bartholomew's Hospital Medical School. It has been said of Latham thathis clinical teaching was excellent' (DNB, 1892, p.167). It was also in 1836 that he published Lectures on Subjects connected with Clinical Medicine, of which the first six are on methods of study and observation, the next six on auscultation and percussion, and two more on phthisis.

In 1837 he was appointed physician extraordinary to Queen Victoria, an office which he retained until his death. Latham never acquired a large private practice. In 1839 he delivered the Harveian Oration at the Royal College of Physicians, which he subsequently published. In 1841 he resigned from St Bartholomew's Hospital due to frequent attacks of asthma, from which he had suffered from an early age. Latham published Lectures on Clinical Medicine, comprising Diseases of the Heart in 1845. This was described as `a work of great originality, full of careful observation, and containing a discussion of all parts of the subject' (ibid). It has also been said of his work that

`although most remedies Latham advocated have proved ineffective, his descriptions of the clinical symptoms and physical findings in his patients remain interesting and instructive' (Fye, 1989, p.610).

In 1865 he relinquished his small practice and left London to settle in Torquay. He was married twice, firstly to Diana Clarissa Chetwynd Stapleton in 1824, who had died the following year, and then to Grace Mary Chambers, with whom he had four children all of whom survived him. He died in Torquay on 20 July 1875, at the age of 86.

Publications:
An Account of the Disease lately prevalent at the General Penitentiary (London, 1825)
Lectures on Subjects connected with Clinical Medicine (London, 1836)
Oratio ex Harveii instituto habita..., MDCCCXXXIX (London, 1839?)
Lectures on Subjects connected with Clinical Medicine, comprising Diseases of the Heart (London, 1845-46, 2nd ed.)
Collected Works, with Memoir by Sir Thomas Watson, Robert Martin (ed.) (London, 1876-78)
Aphorisms from Latham; edited by W.B. Bean, William Bennett Bean (ed.) (Iowa, 1962)

Various

William George Maton was born, 1774; educated at Salisbury's Free Grammar School; Queen's College, Oxford, 1790-1797; medical studies at Westminster Hospital, 1779-[1801]; Fellow of the College of Surgeons, 1802; Goulstonian lecturer in 1803, Censor 1804, 1813, and 1824; Treasurer, 1814-1820; Harveian orator, 1815; Physician to the Westminster Hospital, 1800-1808; Physician-Extraordinary to Queen Charlotte, 1816; Physician-in-Ordinary to the Duchess of Kent and to the infant Princess Victoria, 1820; died, 1835.

Born, 1771; education, the free grammar school, Marlborough and a school in Old Burlington Street, London; medical education mainly under his paternal uncle, also Samuel Merriman, a distinguished obstetrician; qualified, 1800; member of the Society of Apothecaries, 1800; initially practised as an apothecary but began to specialise in midwifery; from 1808 he was physician accoucheur, consulting physician accoucheur, and vice-president at the Westminster Dispensary; employed by the board of St George's, Hanover Square, to attend all difficult births in the parish, 1808; physician accoucheur to the Middlesex and Westminster lying-in hospitals, 1809; lectured on obstetrics at the Middlesex Hospital, 1810-; taught at St Bartholomew's Hospital, 1820-1821; died, 1852.

Publications: Synopsis of the Various Kinds of Difficult Parturition (1814)

Charles Murchison was born on 26 July 1830 in Jamaica, the son of the Hon. Alexander Murchison, physician. At the age of three Murchison returned with his family to Scotland and settled in Elgin, where he was educated. He entered the University of Aberdeen in 1845 as a student of arts, and two years later began to study medicine at Edinburgh University. He distinguished himself in surgery, botany, and midwifery, gaining a large number of prizes. In 1850 he passed the examination for membership of the Royal College of Surgeons, at little over twenty years old. In the same year he became house surgeon to James Syme, professor of surgery at Edinburgh University. In 1851 Murchison graduated MD, with his thesis on the structure of tumours, which won him a gold medal.

Murchison became physician to the British embassy at Turin, Italy, before returning to Edinburgh in 1852, where he served for a short time as resident physician in the city's Royal Infirmary. He continued his medical studies at Dublin and Paris before, in 1853, entering the Bengal Medical Service of the East India Company. Shortly after reaching India he was made professor of chemistry at the Medical College of Calcutta. In 1854 he served on an expedition to Burma, and the following year his two papers on the `Climate and Diseases of Burmah' were published in the Edinburgh Medical Journal (January and April 1855). In the autumn of 1855 Murchison left the service and moved to London.

Settling in London he became physician to the Westminster General Dispensary, and shortly afterwards lecturer on botany and curator of the museum at St Mary's Hospital. He also became a member of the Royal College of Physicians, and of the Pathological Society, in 1855. Throughout his career he contributed 143 papers and reports to the Transactions of the society. In 1856 he was appointed assistant physician to both the London Fever Hospital and King's College Hospital. In 1859 he was elected a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.

He resigned from King's College Hospital in 1860 and was appointed assistant physician and lecturer on pathology at the Middlesex Hospital. In 1861 he was made full physician at the London Fever Hospital, and became a specialist on fevers. From 1861-69 he edited the hospital's Annual Reports. Murchison's most important contribution to medical science was A Treatise on the Continued Fevers of Great Britain (1862). The work was subsequently translated into German and French, and came to be regarded as the leading authority on the subject. In 1866 he was promoted to the position of full physician at the Middlesex Hospital, and in the same year became a fellow of the Royal Society. Another area of interest to Murchison was liver disease, and in 1868 he published his Clinical Lectures on Diseases of the Liver, Jaundice and Abdominal Dropsy.

In 1870 he retired from the London Fever Hospital, and was presented with a testimonial by public subscription. In the same year he received an honorary degree from the University of Edinburgh. The following year he resigned from the Middlesex Hospital in order to become physician and lecturer on medicine at St Thomas's Hospital, both of these appointments he held until his death. He gained a high reputation as a clinical teacher. He was considered brilliant, although dogmatic in his approach, and was a keen controversialist. His consulting practice grew, and he became known for his `accuracy and prompt decision' (DNB, 1894, p.317). He was also an extremely prolific writer, submitting over 300 papers to various medical journals.

In 1873 he traced the origin of an epidemic of typhoid fever to a polluted supply of milk. Afterwards grateful residents of West London presented him with a testimonial. He gave the Croonian Lectures to the Royal College of Physicians in the same year, on the subject of liver disease. In 1875 he was an examiner in medicine to the University of London. For two years, from 1877 to his death, Murchison was president of the Pathological Society. He was appointed physician-in-ordinary to the Duke and Duchess of Connaught at the beginning of 1879.

Murchison died suddenly of heart disease at the age of 48, on 23 April 1879, whilst seeing patients in his consulting room. He was buried at Norwood cemetery. Murchison had married Clara Elizabeth Bickersteth in 1859, and they had had nine children, his wife and six of his children survived him. In his memory was founded the Murchison Scholarship, awarded in alternate years by the Royal College of Physicians and Edinburgh University. A marble portrait bust of Murchison was also placed in St Thomas's Hospital.

Publications:
A Clinical Treatise on Diseases of the Liver, Friedrich Theodor Frerichs, translated by Charles Murchison (London, 1860-61)
A Treatise on the Continued Fevers of Great Britain (London, 1862; 2nd ed. 1873; 3rd ed. 1884) (German translation, 1867; French translation of part, 1878)
Clinical Lectures on Diseases of the Liver, Jaundice, and Abdominal Dropsy (London, 1868; 2nd ed. incl. Functional Derangements of the Liver, 1877; 3rd ed. 1885) (French translation, 1878)
Paleontological Memoirs and Notes; with a Biographical Sketch, compiled and edited by Charles Murchison, Hugh Falconer (ed. Charles Murchison) (London, 1868)
Three Rare Forms of Disease of the Liver, Characterised by the Deposit of Nuclear Tissue (London, 1869)
On Functional Derangements of the Liver (London, 1874)

Richard Lower was born, 1631; education, Westminster School; Christ Church, Oxford, 1651-1665; had established an active medical practice in Oxford; established himself as an important medical researcher; relocated to London to establish a medical practice, 1666; maintained his research activities for several years after arriving in London but devoted himself increasingly to clinical medicine; Fellow of the College of Physicians, 1675; Royal Physician, 1675; died, 1691.

Possibly Joseph Phelan, MD Glasgow 1785, LRCP 1786, naval surgeon.

Andrew Plowden was servant to Mistress Honore Henslow.

Born, 1745; education: Beverley Grammar School; Lincoln College, Oxford, 1763-; Trinity College, Cambridge; further study at Edinburgh, graduated MB at Cambridge, 1768; MD, 1773; practised at Guildford, Surrey; moved to London, 1772; Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians (RCP), 1774; RCP censor, 1774, 1778, 1782, 1784, 1787, and 1792; RCP registrar, 1781-1783; Goulstonian Lecturer, 1775; Harveian Orator, 1776; Physician to the Middlesex Hospital, 1773-1777; Physician to St Thomas's Hospital, 1777-1783; Physician-Extraordinary to King George III, 1788; Physician-in-Ordinary, 1806; died, 1811.

Born, 1862; educated at Maclaren's School at Summerfield, Oxford, and at Marlborough College; medical student at St Bartholomew's Hospital, London, 1881-1883; St John's College, Cambridge, 1883-; Demonstrator in Pathology at Cambridge, 1887; House Physician at St Bartholomew's; Demonstrator in Anatomy at St Bartholomew's; Curator of the museum at St George's Hospital, London, 1890; MD, 1891; Assistant Physician to St George's, 1893; Physician to St George's, 1898-[1918]; staff of the Victoria Hospital for Children, London; Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, 1894; Consulting Physician to the Imperial Yeomanry Hospital at Pretoria, South Africa, 1901; served on advisory committees set up by the Royal Army Medical Corps and the Royal Naval Service to improve the conditions of its officers; examiner for the service's entrance and promotion examinations in medicine; consulting physician to the Royal Navy, with the temporary rank of surgeon rear-admiral, First World War; representative of the medical department of the Admiralty on the medical board of the flying corps, and he became Physician to the Central Flying Hospital at Mount Vernon, Hampstead, London, 1917-1919; Consulting Physician to St George's Hospital, 1918; Consulting Physician to the Ventnor Hospital for Consumption on the Isle of Wight, 1922; Consulting Physician to the King Edward VII Sanatorium at Midhurst, 1923; Physician-in-Ordinary to King George V, 1923; President of the Royal Society of Medicine, 1918-1920; President of the Royal College of Physicians, 1922-1926; President of the Association of Physicians of Great Britain and Ireland, 1925 and 1929; President of the Medical Society of London, 1926-1927; Regius Professor of Physic at Cambridge, 1925; retired, 1932; died, 1944.

Francis Sibson was born on 21 May 1814 at Cross Canonby, Cumberland (now Cumbria). He spent most of his childhood in Edinburgh, after his parents moved there in 1819. At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to John Lizars, surgeon and anatomist. He received his diploma from the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh (LRCS) in 1831. He treated cholera patients during the 1831-32 epidemic, at Leith, Newhaven and Edinburgh. He then entered general practice for a short time at Cockermouth, Cumberland, before resuming his medical studies at Guy's and St Thomas's Hospitals in London. As part of his studies he spent some time, in 1833, in the pathology department of Guy's, where he became a friend and pupil of the curator Thomas Hodgkin, physician and philanthropist. Sibson qualified licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries (LSA) in 1835, and became resident surgeon and apothecary to the Nottingham General Hospital.

He published a number of papers on the physiology and pathology of respiration, which attracted attention to him and increased his reputation. His first paper, `A Flexible Stethoscope', was published in the Medical Gazette (1840). In 1843 he joined the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association (later the British Medical Association). In 1848 he left his position at Nottingham General Hospital and returned to London. He graduated MB and MD from London in the same year, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1849. It was also in 1849 that he became a member of the Royal College of Physicians. Sibson took a house in Brook Street, Grosvenor Square, and built up a successful private practice. During the winter of 1849-50 he gave a course of demonstrations on visceral anatomy. He also lectured on medicine at Lane's School, which adjoined St George's Hospital.

Upon the foundation of St Mary's Hospital in 1851 he was appointed one of its first physicians. Sibson subsequently lectured on medicine at the hospital's medical school. He delivered the Goulstonian Lectures at the Royal College of Physicians in 1854, where he had been elected a fellow the previous year. He authored the illustrated Medical Anatomy, which he published in sections (1855-69). This highly merited work was the result of enormous labour and research. He also contributed chapters on pericarditis and endocarditis to Sir John Russell Reynolds' System of Medicine (1866-79).

Sibson's main interest was in trying to envisage the viscera both in a healthy and diseased state. His idea of 'medical anatomy' was to teach the topographical anatomy of the healthy viscera on the dead body, in order that the pathology student was always familiar with the position and movement of the organs. It has been said that he was `a man of continuous industry, and his numerous papers contain elaborate series of observations' (DNB, 1897, p.187).

Sibson helped to carry into effect the new constitution of the British Medical Association (BMA) in 1856, and was an active member until his death. In 1861, and from 1864-66, he was chosen by the Metropolitan Counties Branch as a member of the General Council of the BMA. In 1865 Sibson was elected to the senate of London University, in which he opposed the admission of women to degrees. He also held the position of examiner in medicine. From 1866-69 Sibson served as president of the BMA's Council and on retirement from this office became vice-president of the Association for life. He was awarded the honorary degrees of MD by Dublin University in 1867, and LLD by Durham University in 1870.

In 1870 he delivered the Croonian Lectures at the Royal College of Physicians. The following year he retired from the active staff of St Mary's and became consulting physician. In 1873 at the BMA's annual meeting he presided over the Section of Medicine. The following year he proposed that a portion of the Association's funds be available for scientific research. In 1874 he delivered the College's Lumleian Lectures and held the office of censor, in the same year, and then curator of the museum. His last contribution to medical literature was his Harveian Lectures on Bright's Disease in relation to the heart and the arteries, in 1875.

Sibson married Sarah Mary Ouvry in 1858. He was a keen Alpine climber and died suddenly whilst on holiday at Geneva, on 7 September 1876. His Collected Works (1881) were posthumously published, by William Miller Ord.

Publications:
Medical Anatomy, or, Illustrations of the Relevant Position and Movements of the Internal Organs (London, 1869)
The Nomenclature of Diseases, drawn up by a Joint Committee appointed by the Royal College of Physicians, Francis Sibson (ed.) (London, 1869)
Collected Works of Francis Sibson, W.M. Ord (ed.) (London, 1881)

Sir Edward Henry Sieveking was born in Bishopsgate, London, on 24 August 1816, the eldest son of Edward Henry Sieveking, a merchant from Hamburg who had moved to London in 1809. His father had returned to Germany and served in the Hanseatic Legion during the War of Liberation, 1813-14. Sieveking's early education took place in England. From 1830 he was educated in Germany, in Ratzeburg and Berlin. In 1837 he entered the University of Berlin where he studied anatomy and physiology, the latter under the celebrated physiologist Johannes Peter Muller. In 1838 he undertook surgical work at Bonn. He then returned to England where he took up his medical studies at University College, London, for two years, and then at the University of Edinburgh, where he graduated MD in 1841.

Sieveking spent a further year abroad in 1842, visiting the hospitals of Paris, Vienna, Wurzburg, and Berlin. He then settled and began to practice in the English colony in Hamburg. Whilst there he was associated with founding a children's hospital, with his aunt Miss Emilia Sieveking, philanthropist and pioneer of nursing. During this time he published A Treatise on Ventilation (1846). In 1847 he returned to London and became a member of the Royal College of Physicians. He began to practice in London, first in Brook Street and then in Bentinck Street. He took an active part in advocating nursing the sick poor, and produced his first English publication, The Training Institutions for Nurses and the Workhouses (1849).

In 1851 Sieveking became assistant physician at St Mary's Hospital, and so one of its original staff. He lectured on materia medica at the Hospital's medical school for the next sixteen years. In 1852 he became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. Two years later he co-authored A Manual of Pathological Anatomy (1854; 2nd edition, 1875), with Charles Handfield Jones, his colleague at St Mary's. The publication was illustrated with reproductions of Sieveking's watercolours. In 1855 Sieveking assisted John Lumsden Propert in founding Epsom College, a school for the sons of medical men, and was its first honorary secretary. From 1855 until 1860 he edited the British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review. He also contributed to many other medical periodicals, especially on the subjects of nervous diseases, climatology, and nursing. In 1857 he moved to Manchester Square, London, where he remained for the rest of his life.

In 1858 Sieveking invented an aesthesiometer, an instrument for testing the sensation on the skin. In the same year he published his most important work, On Epilepsy and Epileptiform Seizures, their Causes, Pathology, and Treatment (2nd edition, 1861). He was a supporter of the reforms of the Royal College of Physicians of that year, which gave powers, such as the election of the president, formerly enjoyed by the eight elect of the College, to the whole body of fellows. In 1861 he was elected president of the Harveian Society, a reflection of his status and reputation within the medical world.

In 1863 he was appointed physician in ordinary to the Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII. The following year he was appointed physician to the London Lock Hospital and the National Hospital for the Paralysed and Epileptic. It was also in 1864 that he founded, with the scientist Sir David Brewster and the physician Charles Murchison, the Edinburgh University Club in London. He was promoted to full physician of St Mary's in 1866, after sixteen years in the out-patient wards. In the same year he delivered the Croonian Lectures at the Royal College of Physicians. Sieveking held a number of prominent positions within the College including that of censor, several times between 1869 and 1881, and in 1877 was Harveian Orator.

In 1873 Sieveking became physician extraordinary to Queen Victoria. He was also a member of the council of the British Medical Association, representing for eight years the Metropolitan Counties Branch. In 1876 he delivered the Address in Medicine at the annual meeting in Sheffield. He was largely responsible for the creation of the Association's medal for distinguished merit, established in 1877. In 1884 he received an honorary degree from the University of Edinburgh, on its tercentenary. Two years later Sieveking was knighted. He retired from the active staff of St Mary's in 1887, and became consulting physician. The following year he was elected vice-president of the Royal College of Physicians, and president of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society. Also in 1888 Queen Victoria made him physician in ordinary. The following year he retired from the London Lock Hospital.

In 1895 Sieveking became president of the British Balneological and Climatological Society. He was made Knight of Grace of the Order of St John of Jerusalem, in 1896. Edward VII, after his accession to the throne, made Sieveking his physician extraordinary in 1902.

He had married, in 1849, Jane daughter of John Ray, J.P. They had five sons and three daughters. Sieveking died at his house in Manchester Square on 24 February 1904, aged 87. He was buried in the family grave at Abney Park cemetery, Stoke Newington.

Publications:
A Treatise on Ventilation (1846)
The Training Institutions for Nurses and the Workhouses (1849)
A Manual of Pathological Anatomy, Carl Rokitansky (vol. ii, London, 1849) translated by Sieveking
A Manual of the Nervous Diseases of Man, Moritz Heinrich Romberg (2 vols., London, 1853) translated by Sieveking
British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review (editor, from 1855)
On Epilepsy and Epileptiform Seizures, their Causes, Pathology, and Treatment (London, 1858; 2nd ed. 1861)
A Manual of Pathological Anatomy, with Charles Handfield Jones (London, 1854; 2nd ed. 1875)
The Medical Adviser in Life Assurance (London, 1874; 2nd ed. 1882)
The Harveian Oration (London, 1877)

Born, 1813; Faculty of Arts, University of Glasgow, 1826-1828; Medical Faculty, University of Glasgow, 1830-1838; further studies at Paris and Berlin; practised in London, 1839-1883; assistant physician to the Middlesex Hospital, 1850; Physician, 1855; Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, 1855; Physician to the St Pancras Royal General Dispensary; died, 1883.

Born, 1 April 1876, Clifton, Bristol; educated at Clifton School, before entering Bristol University and then the Bristol Royal Infirmary to study medicine. He graduated in 1900, and became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons and a licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians; immediately after graduating Stock joined the Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC); posted to South Africa, where he was appointed Regimental Medical Officer with the 8th Hussars; South Africa, 1902-1914, holding various medical posts including Medical Officer of Health of Johannesburg, where he was responsible for the underground sanitation of the gold mines; Director of Medical Services of the Union of South Africa, 1913; organised the medical services for the force invading German South-West Africa, 1914; introduced compulsory anti-typhoid inoculations for the entire force; towards the end of the Southwest African campaign Stock reorganised medical services for the South African contingent in Europe; recalled to German East Africa in 1917, where there were high casualties from disease, and reorganised the medical services there.

He returned to Europe in 1918, and served in France as Officer Commanding a General Hospital, and as Medical Adviser on Native Labour; member of the Inter-Allied Sanitary Conference 1917-18; received the CB and CBE, and was mentioned in dispatches; admitted to the honorary fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh; joined the newly formed Ministry of Health, 1920; between the two World Wars, Stock undertook epidemiological work, investigating outbreaks of plague, cholera, typhus, malaria and other diseases; his main interest was in port sanitation and international quarantine conventions, becoming a leading world expert on the subject; represented South Africa at the twice-yearly meetings in Paris of the Office Internationale d'Hygiene Publique; in Britain he became a Deputy Senior Medical Officer, Ministry of Health, 1935; Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, 1937; Senior Medical Officer of the Ministry of Health, 1940; retired, 1941, but rejoined as a temporary Medical Officer; chaired the preliminary committee in London, which resulted in the new International Sanitary Conventions of 1944 reflecting the hygiene implications of air travel; During the Second World War Stock was made responsible for the health of people in air-raid shelters in London, helping, for example, to eradicate a species of mosquito (culex molestus), in London Underground wastewater; chaired wartime Committee on Louse Infestation; retired from the Ministry of Health at the end of the war; awarded the Medaille de la Reconnaissance Francaise by the French Government for his services to the Free French forces; became a part-time consultant to the World Health Organisation (WHO), serving as chairman of the Quarantine Commission of their Interim Commission; accompanied the Director General of WHO on an extensive tour of tropical Africa; finally retired to Ramsbury, Wiltshire, although he continued to act as a consultant to WHO; chaired its Committee on Quarantine and occasionally undertook missions to West Africa; in Ramsbury he played a prominent role in the affairs of the village, and was affectionately known to the inhabitants as "Colonel Stock"; died 95 days before his 100th birthday, on 27 December 1975.

Born, 1675; extra-licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians, 1700; practised at Alnwick; graduated MD at the University of Utrecht, 1720; licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians, 1721; author of a number of medical works, in particular making detailed comments on the problems and use of 'Jesuits' bark', cinchona, in fever, and on the treatment of smallpox; died, 1737.

John Stephen Taylor of Thorne, Yorkshire, fl 1900-1960.

Born, 1850; degree of DSc, London, 1884; graduated in medicine at the Victoria University, Manchester; 1889; Diploma of Public Health of the University of Cambridge, 1892; MD, 1896; first Medical Officer of Health for the County of Essex; Consulting Medical Officer; Lecturer in Public Health at the London Hospital Medical College; Examiner in State Medicine for the University of London; one of the early pioneers who established the importance of hygiene in connection with the home; died, 1932.

Wilfrid Bernard Vaillant was born at Meadowleigh, Weybridge, on 23 September 1864, son of Major Albert Vaillant. He was educated at Clewer Hill School from 1874-78, and then Radley College from 1878-83, where he won several sports prizes. He entered Christ Church College, Oxford, in 1883 and graduated BA in 1890 and MA in 1891.

Between 1885-90 he worked at the recently established Oxford House, Bethnal Green, East London. Oxford House was built to be a home to graduates, tutors and those intending to enter the church so that they might learn at first hand the problems of the city poor, through social, educational and religious work with them.

Vaillant attended Ely Theological College between 1890 and 1891. He was ordained Deacon on 20 September 1891 in Ely Cathedral, and Priest in St Paul's Cathedral on 18 February 1894. He became Curate at the Christ Church Oxford Mission, St Frideswide's, East London.

John Warburton attended Caius College Cambridge and was a Member of the Royal Medical Society Edinburgh. He died, 1843.

The Westminster General Dispensary, Gerrard street, was instituted in 1774. It treated medical and surgical cases and also had a lying-in department. It closed in 1961.

Born, 1618 or 1619; educated: the free school of Thame, Oxfordshire; Trinity College, Oxford, 1635-1639; fellow of Merton College, 1640; studied medicine at Leiden, 1642-1645; incorporated his Leiden MD at Oxford, 1647; Professor of Geometry at Gresham College, 1648-1656; fellow of the College of Physicians, 1649; cared for seamen, wounded in the Dutch war, at Ipswich, Harwich, and possibly London, 1653-1654; physician to Bulstrode Whitelocke's embassy to Sweden, 1653; practised in London, 1654-; served twelve terms as censor of the College of Physicians between 1657 and 1680; College of Physicians registrar, 1674-1682; College of Physicians elect from 1676; College of Physicians treasurer, 1682; College of Physicians president, 1683; died, 1684.

Robert Woody (1770-1823), son of Robert Woody, Apothecary, born in Old Bond Street, 13 Sep 1770; admitted House Surgeon at the Salop Infirmary on the recommendation of John Hunter; left June 20th 1800; doctor on board the Hon. East India Company's ships; went to Tamworth early in 1800; died 6 Aug 1823.

Sir James Clarke (1788-1870) was from 1809-1815 a surgeon in the Navy. From 1819 to 1826 he lived mainly in Rome, Italy where he established a practice amongst the visiting aristocracy of Europe. In 1826 he returned to England where he settled in London and became an LRCP and FRS. In 1837 he was made First Physician to Queen Victoria and on her marriage, Physician also to Prince Albert. Clark is perhaps best known for his work on consumption and the effects of climate on health. During his time in Europe he visited most of its spa resorts. Further accounts of Clark's life can be found in Munk's Roll vol iii, DNB, and Obituaries of Fellows of the Royal Society.

John Heaviside was a medical student and later lectured at Surgeon's Hall.

John Hunter (1728-1793) and his brother William ran a School of Anatomy in Great Windmill Street, opened by William in 1768. John practised as surgeon in Golden Square from 1763 and was Surgeon to St George's Hospital from 1768. He began to lecture on the principles and practice of surgery in 1773. His publications included A treatise on the venereal disease (London, 1786) and A treatise on the blood, inflammation, and gunshot wounds (London, 1794).

Sir Arthur Keith (1866-1955) Kt. 1921; F.R.S. 1913; M.R.C.S. 1894; F.R.C.S. 1894; L.R.C.P. 1894; M.B. Aberdeen 1888; M.D. 1894; F.R.C.S. Ed. 1930; F.R.S.N.Z. 1939; L.L.D. Aberdeen 1911, Birmingham 1924; D.Sc. Durham 1921, Manchester 1923, Oxford 1930. Arthur Keith was born at Old Machar, Aberdeenshire, fourth son and sixth of ten children of John Keith, a farmer, and Jessie Macpherson his wife. He was educated at Gordon's College and Aberdeen University (Marishal College), where he graduated with first class honours in 1888. It was at Aberdeen that Keith came under the influence of James Trail, the botanist and Sir John Struther, the anatomist. After postgraduate study at Leipzig, he spent three years in Siam as physician to a rubber company with a commission to collect botanical specimens for Kew, and he also made extensive study of the muscles of cqatarrhine monkeys. The botanical collection was later used by H N Ridley in his comprehensive work on Flora of the Malay Peninsula. Keith's thesis based on his monkey research earned him the M.D. at Aberdeen, with the Struthers anatomy medal in 1894. He took Fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons of England the same year while working under G D Thane at University College, London, and in 1895 was appointed to teach anatomy at the London Hospital Medical College, where he worked with marked success until 1908. He was an extremely popular and efficient teacher and in 1898 published a seminal textbook Human Embryologand Morphologyy, which went through six editions. Keith also began extensive research in teratology, particularly on the anatomy and malformations of the heart. In the course of this work he was the first to describe, with his pupil Martin Flack, the sino-atrial node or pacemaker of the human Heart (Lancet 1906, 2, 359; Journal of Anatomy 190 ,41, 172).

He was appointed Conservator of the Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1908, and began to revive the scientific side of the College's works by his brilliant lectures, popular scientific writings, and by attracting surgeons, anatomists and anthropologists to work with him for shorter or longer periods in the Museum and its laboratories. The Hunterian Museum, under Keith's direction became recognised as one of the finest records of the structure, history, anatomical and embryological basis of the human body and the surgical disabilities and disorders that can effect it. Keith started to concentrate on the problems of human evolution and the diversification of the modern races of mankind. There followed a number of palaeo-anthropological studies in which Keith claimed a higher antiquity for Homo sapiens than was usually accepted. In recent years some of the fossils on which Keith based his studies have been found to be more modern than he was able to assertion using the methods of dating at the time.

Keith was elected F.R.S. in 1913 in recognition of his anatomical researches, but the last forty years of his life were devoted to anthropology. The publication of the alleged discovery of the Piltdown skull in 1912 led Keith into serious controversy with those who claimed that the skull (as well as the jaw) displayed remarkable simian characteristics, and he was able to show that, if properly reconstructed, the skull was, in fact quite like that of Homo sapiens. Nevertheless, though he expressed doubts as to the interpretation of this 'fossil', which we now, know to have been a forgery, Keith thought that Piltdown man was akin to a very early ancestor of modern man.

He published The Antiquity of Man in 1915, with an enlarged edition in 1925 and a supplementary volume of New Discoveries in 1931. These works attempted to review all the fossil remains of man.

During the First World War Keith was occupied with problems of surgical anatomy related to war injuries, and published a number of lectures on the anatomical and physiological principles underlying the treatment of wounds to the muscles, bones and joints Some of these lectures given during 1917-18 appeared in his work of 1919 Memoirs of the Maimed (1919, reprinted 1952. He was President of the Royal Anthropological Institute in 1914-1917.

After the First World War the army medical authorities gave the College it's collection of war specimens (in 1946 a second collection was given). Other notable collections added during Keith's Conservatorship were the Onodi collection of nasal anatomy specimens bought for the College in 1921; Sir William MacEwen's specimens given in 1924 and the Strangeways collection of chronic arthritis specimens. Keith also oversaw new collections medico-legal, historical, Odontological specimens and instrument collections.

During the 1920s he became a one-man 'Court of Appeal' for physical anthropologists from all over the world, while his journalism made his name familiar amongst the general public. He was in the tradition of T H Huxley in his efforts to popularise science. Keith was knighted in 1921. He was President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1927, his Presidential address was entitled Darwin's Theory of Man's Descent as It Stands Today. Keith was also active in the Royal Institution as Fullerian Professor (1918-1923), Honorary Secretary, and a Manager. His children's lectures there formed a popular book on Engines of the Human Body (1919, second edition 1925).

Berkeley Moynihan later Viscount Moynihan (1865-1936) became President of the College in 1926 and was very supportive of Keith's endeavours. With the financial aid of Sir Buckston Browne (1850-1945) Moynihan founded in 1932, at Keith's instigation, the Buckston Browne Research Farm at Downe in Kent. Keith and Browne had already persuaded the British Association to form the Darwin Museum in Darwin's home, Down House. Keith retired as Conservator in 1933 and moved to Downe to become the first master of the Buckston Browne Research Farm.

In 1930 Keith became Rector of Aberdeen University and in his Rectorial address he developed the thesis that nationalism is a potent factor in the evolutionary differentiation of human races, this idea was expanded in to A New Theory of Human Evolution which was published in 1948.

Keith married in 1899 Celia Caroline Gray; Keith and his wife formed a small collection of water-colours by leading artists, which he bequeathed amongst his friends. There were no children, and Lady Keith died at Downe in 1934.

During Keith's years at Downe 1933-1955, besides supervising young surgeons engaged in research at the farm Keith continued to be active, writing many semi-popular articles mostly on evolution and Darwinism. He wrote his Autobiography in 1950. He died suddenly at Downe in 1955.

A. Kirkpatrick Maxwell was born in Annan, Scotland, and studied drawing at evening classes run by Glasgow City Art School. He was asked to contribute some articles by a natural history lecturer at Glasgow University and built up a reputation as an illustrator. After the outbreak of war in 1914 he travelled to France to make over 1000 surgical illustrations of war wounds and diseases, many of which were published in the British Journal of Surgery. The original illustrations were kept at the Royal College of Surgeons of England but were destroyed during the Blitz. After the war, Maxwell worked as an ilustrator for University College and for the Cancer Research Institute, publishing his own articles on cancer. During the Second World War he was asked by Sir Cecil Wakeley to again sketch wounded servicemen.

The author of the diary, probably Joshua Naples, was a resurrectionist supplying bodies to anatomy teachers, and was active during 1811 and 1812.

Born, Lancaster, 1804; educated, Lancaster Grammar School; enlisted as a midshipman in the Royal Navy; became interested in surgery; returned to Lancaster and became indentured to a local surgeon, 1820; became interested in anatomy; entered the University of Edinburgh medical school, 1824; privately attended the lectures of Dr John Barclay; moved to London and became apprentice to John Abernethy, surgeon and philosopher and President of the Royal College of Surgeons, 1825; member, Royal College of Surgeons, 1826; Assistant Curator, Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, 1827 and commenced work cataloguing the collection; set up a private practice in Lincoln's Inn Fields; Lecturer on comparative anatomy, St Bartholomew's Hospital, 1829; met Georges Cuvier in 1830 and attended the 1831 debates between Cuvier and Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire, Paris; worked in the dissecting rooms and public galleries of the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, 1831; published anatomical work on the cephalopod Nautilus; started the Zoological Magazine, 1833; worked on the fossil vertebrates brought back by Darwin on the Beagle; Fellow of the Royal Society, 1834; Hunterian Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, 1836-1856; gave his first series of Hunterian Lectures to the public, 1837; awarded the Wollaston gold medal by the Geological Society, 1838; helped found the Royal Microscopical Society, 1839; identified the extinct moa of New Zealand from a bone fragment, 1839; refused a knighthood, 1842; examination of reptile-like fossil bones found in southern England led him to identify "a distinct tribe or sub-order of Saurian Reptiles" he named Dinosauria, 1842; developed his concept of homology and of a common structural plan for all vertebrates or 'archetype'; Joint Conservator of the Hunterian Museum with William Clift, 1842, and Conservator, 1849; elected to 'The Club', founded by Dr Johnson, 1845; member of the government commission for inquiring into the health of London, 1847, Smithfield and other meat markets, 1849; described the anatomy of the newly discovered (in 1847) species of ape, the gorilla, [1865]; engaged in a long running public debate with Thomas Henry Huxley on the evolution of humans from apes; member of the preliminary Committee of organisation for the Great Exhibition of 1851; Superintendent of the natural history collections at the British Museum, 1856; began researches on the collections, publishing many papers on specimens; prosector for the London Zoo, dissecting and preserving any zoo animals that died in captivity; taught natural history to Queen Victoria's children, 1860; reported on the first specimen of an unusual Jurassic bird fossil from Germany, Archaeopteryx lithographica, 1863; lectured on fossils at the Museum of Practical Geology; Fullerian Professor of Physiology at the Royal Institution, 1859-1861; taxonomic work included a number of important discoveries as he named and described a vast number of living and fossil vertebrates; campaigned to make the natural history departments of the British Museum into a separate museum, leading to the construction of a new building in South Kensington to house the new British Museum (Natural History), opened in 1881; [now the Natural History Museum;] knighted, 1884; died, Richmond, 1892.
Publications include: Memoir on the pearly nautilus (1832); The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle pt. 1. Fossil Mammalia: by Richard Owen (Smith, Elder & Co, London, 1840); Odontography 2 vol (London, 1840-45); Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Invertebrate Animals, delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons, in 1843 ... From notes taken by W. W. Cooper (London, 1843-46); Report on the State of Lancaster (W. Clowes & Sons, London, 1845); A History of British Fossil Mammals and Birds (London, 1846); On the archetype and homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton (London, 1848); A History of British Fossil Reptiles (Cassell & Co, London, 1849-84); Descriptive catalogue of the Osteological Series contained in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons (London, 1853); On the classification and geographical distribution of the Mammalia (London, 1859); Palæontology, or a systematic summary of Extinct Animals and their geological relations (Edinburgh, 1860); Monograph of the Fossil Reptilia of the cretaceous and Purbeck Strata (1860); Memoir on the Megatherium; or, Giant Ground-Sloth of America (London, 1861); Description of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic Sloth, Mylodon Robustus (London, 1862); Inaugural Address .. on the opening of the New Philosophical Hall at Leeds (Leeds, 1862); On the extent and aims of a National Museum of Natural History (London, 1862); Memoir on the Gorilla (London, 1865); On the Anatomy of Vertebrates 3 vol (Longmans, Green & Co, London, 1866-68); Descriptive and illustrated catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia of South Africa in the collection of the British Museum (London, 1876); Researches on the fossil remains of the Extinct Mammals of Australia; with a notice of the extinct Marsupials of England 2 vol (London, 1877); Memoirs of the extinct Wingless Birds of New Zealand (London, 1879); International Medical Congress. On the scientific status of medicine (J W Kolckmann, London, 1881); Experimental Physiology, its benefits to mankind (Longmans & Co, London, 1882).

Currently no information is known concerning the author and the hand of the manuscript has not been identified. In addition, the full details of Mr Arden, the lecturer, are also unknown.

Aristophanes was born in c 445 BC. He was a Greek comic dramatist and was also known as the Father of Comedy and the Prince of Ancient Comedy. The Wasps was written in 422 BC. He died in c 386 BC.

The author of the translation is not known.

The American College of Surgeons was initiated in 1913 by Chicago Surgeon, Franklin Martin, following a series of successful clinical congresses attended by American surgeons in 1911 (Philedelphia) and 1912 (New York). The American College of Surgeons is a scientific and educational association of surgeons that aims to improve the quality of care for the surgical patient by setting high standards for surgical education and practice.