Julius Lewin, Lecturer in Native Law at the University of the Witwatersrand.
Edward Mayow Hastings Lloyd: Born 1889; educated at Rugby School and Corpus Christi College Oxford; joined Inland Revenue, 1913; War Office Contracts Department, 1914-1917; Ministry of Food, 1917-1919; Economic and Financial Section of the League of Nations Secretariat, 1919-1921; Assistant Secretary, Empire Marketing Board, 1926-1933; Secretary, Market Supply Committee, 1933-1936; Assistant Director, Food (Defence Plans) Dept, 1936-1939; Principal Asst Secretary, Ministry of Food, 1939-1942; Economic Adviser to Minister of State, Middle East, 1942-1944; UNRRA Economic and Financial Adviser for the Balkans, 1945; CMG 1945; UN Food and Agriculture Organisation, 1946-1947; Under-Secretary, Min. of Food, 1947-1953; CB 1952; died 1968.
Mary Benson was born on 8 December 1919 in Pretoria, South Africa and was educated there and in Great Britain. Before the Second World War she was a secretary in the High Commission Territories Office of the British High Commission in South Africa. Between 1941-1945 she joined the South African women's army, rising to the rank of Captain and serving as Personal Assistant to various British generals in Egypt and Italy.
After the war she joined UNRRA and then became personal assistant to the film director David Lean. In 1950 she became secretary to Michael Scott and first became involved in the field of race relations. In 1951 she became secretary to Tshekedi Khama, and in 1952, together with Scott and David Astor, she helped to found the Africa Bureau in London. She was its secretary until 1957 and travelled widely on its behalf. In 1957 she became secretary to the Treason Trials Defence Fund in Johannesburg. She became a close friend of Nelson Mandela, and assisted with smuggling him out of South Africa in 1962. In February 1966 she was served with a banning order under the Suppression of Communism Act and she left South Africa for London later that year.
In London she continued to work tirelessly against apartheid, writing to newspapers and corresponding with fellow activists in South Africa. In April 1999 Mandela visited her at her home during his state visit to Britain and later that year an 80th birthday party was staged for her at South Africa House.
Mary Benson died on 20 June 2000.
Among her writings are South Africa: the Struggle for a Birthright, Chief Albert Luthuli, The History of Robben Island, Nelson Mandela: the Man and the Movement, the autobiographical A Far Cry and radio plays on Mandela and the Rivonia trial.
Henry T Birch Reynardson: born 24 Feb 1872; joined Army 1913, Commissioned in Oxford & Bucks Light Infantry; served in India, 1913-1914; Mesopotamia, 1914-1915; retired on grounds of ill-health as result of wounds 1927, with the rank of Lt Col; Secretary to Governor-General of Union of South Africa, 1927-1933. High Sheriff of Oxfordshire, 1958. Died 1972.
T W Roberts joined the Ceylon Civil Service in 1902, having obtained a degree in Greats from Oxford University, and failed to find a job as a school master in the UK 'probably because of a colour bar in the teaching ranks of public schools'. He was initally appointed office assistant at Matara, and was later posted to Kurunegala and Chilaw. He became a Magistrate in 1904 and sat on the bench until 1916.
The Southern Rhodesia African National Congress was founded in 1957 under the leadership of Joshua Nkomo. It was banned by the Government in 1959, and several prominent members were arrested and detained. The detainees were released early in 1961. Their claim for compensation does not appear to have been successful.
Between 16 and 24 June 1976 there was widespread rioting in the African townships of South Africa, the worst since the Sharpeville massacre in 1960. The disturbances began in Soweto, the immediate cause was the compulsory use of the Afrikaans language as the medium of instruction in Bantu schools. The rioting quickly spead to other townships. The official death toll was put at 176. The United Nations Security Council passed a resolution condemning the South African Government for 'massive violence against and killings of the African people including schoolchilden and students and others opposing racial discrimination'.
John Ferguson was born in Tain, Easter Ross in 1842. He was educated at Tain Royal Academy, then trained as a journalist in Inverness and London before going to Ceylon om 1861 to take up a position as Assistant Editor of the Columbo Observer, under his uncle, the proprietor and Editor, Alastair Mackenzie (AM) Ferguson. He was to remain with the paper (renamed the Ceylon Observer) in 1867) for nearly 50 years, initially assisting his uncle, but gradually taking a more senior role, and becoming the proprietor and editor on his uncle's death in 1892.
Ferguson developed an active role in the political, commercial and cultural affairs of Ceylon. He took a particular interest in the development and expansion of the railway system, and became closely involved in the tea, coffee, coconut and other planting trades for which he compiled and published statistics in his annually issued Handbook and Directory of Ceylon. His interest in these trades also led to his founding and publishing the Tropical Agriculturalist, a journal covering planting in all tropical regions, which began in 1881 and continued under his control until 1904, when responsibility for it was assumed by the Agricultural Society. Ferguson was very active in the Cinnamon Gardens Baptist Church (as was his uncle), and lectured on many of his interests. He travelled overseas from Ceylon on several occasions, visiting Australia, New Zealand, Japan, China, North America and Britain.
In 1903 Ferguson was awarded the CMG, and in the same year was appointed as a member of the Legislative Council of Ceylon. In this role he continued to support his interests, such as extension of the railway system and supporting trade. He resigned in 1908, and in 1912 returned to Britain for the last time, and he died there in 1913. He was married twice: firstly in 1871 to Charlotte Haddon (died 1903), by whom he had two sons and two daughters; secondly in 1905 to Ella Smith, who survived him.
Alastair Mackenzie (AM) Ferguson, the uncle of John, was born in Wester Ross in 1816. He came to Ceylon in 1837 as one of the staff of JA Stewart Mackenzie, the newly appointed Governor. After holding various posts, he became assistant editor on the Ceylon Observer in 1846, under the then owner, Dr Elliott. In 1859 Dr Elliott sold the newspaper to Ferguson, who was himself joined by his nephew as assistant editor in 1861. From 1879 he took a lesser role in the production of the newspaper, but continued to contribute material, while in 1880-1 he was the Ceylon Commissioner to the Melboune Exhibition. He was awarded the CMG shortly after this event. He made return visits to Britain in the 1860s and 1870s but not thereafter for health reasons; however he continued to make visits abroad to India and Australia. He became a highly respected figure in Ceylon, and like his nephew was very supportive of the planting trades and railway development. He died in 1892.
The Commonwealth Secretariat was established in June 1965 by a decision of the 1964 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting. Prior to this date intra-Commonwealth affairs had been administered by British Civil Servants. The Secretariat was designed to assist internal co-operation between member states and was never intended to have executive powers.
The South African Institute of Race Relations was established in 1929.
The late 1960s and early 1970s in Australia saw the burgeoning of new movements which sought to influence the political process, often on single issues and from outside the established parties which were the conventional channels of political expression. The most popular of these included the anti-war movement, the anti-uranium movement, the land rights movement, the women's movement and the conservation movement, although as the list above indicates there was no shortage of other issues prompting the formation of new pressure groups. Some of these movements coalesced into mainstream political organisations, in the case of the Green Party with significant electoral success, whilst others remain on the margins or have been co-opted by the very forces and institutions they set out to challenge - an example of this being the deradicalizing of the agendas of many feminist groups. The materials held here reflect first-hand both the concerns and the struggles of these movements.
The two main issues arising in the pressure groups' materials held here are those of discrimination against scheduled castes and of inter-community violence and human rights abuses reported in the early 1990s.
As the Burnham administration moved to consolidate its power in the years following independence in 1966 groups like the Civil Liberties Action Council emerged challenging the erosion of rights in Guyana and disputing the fairness of various national and local elections. This criticism provoked further repressive measures which in turn stimulated the formation of the likes of the Guyana Human Rights Association and groups affiliated to the major political parties such as the Women's Progressive Organisation (linked to the PPP) and the Women's Revolutionary Socialist Movement (linked to the PNC).
The legacy of colonialism and neo-colonialism dominated Jamaican politics throughout the period that the materials held here cover, and as a consequence all the items are connected in some way with Jamaican independence, whether reflecting upon the Morant Bay Rebellion of 1865, warning against the INF agreements of 1977-1978 or discussing the merits of a republican constitution.
As a consequence of the policies of the South African government nearly all pressure groups, whatever their particular issues, found themselves having to focus on apartheid. Thus the material here largely falls into two categories, being either concerned directly with the struggle to overthrow the system (and in a few cases with the struggle to maintain it) or with an area on which apartheid most directly impacted. The entrenchment of inequality in education provoked the emergence of numerous groups representing both students and teachers, and similarly there is much evidence here of opposition to the policy of forced removals. The sheer number of groups represented here is both an indication of extensive radicalisation within society and a reflection of how the outlawing of various political parties left a greater space for other organisations to contest these issues.
The gradual extension of the franchise in the decades prior to independence led to the marginalisation in the House of Assembly of parties such as the Progressive Conservatives, which represented the interests of the planter class (although they maintained their dominance in the Legislative Council), while at the same time the contest for dominance in the democratic arena polarised into a struggle between Grantley Adams' Barbados Labour Party (BLP) and the more radical Democratic Labour Party (DLP) led by Errol Barrow, who was eventually to become Barbados's first post-independence Prime Minister. There was also a vigorous debate over the role and value of the short-lived West Indies Federation (1958-1962) which was strongly supported by Adams. The materials held here deal with these issues in detail as well as covering the electoral struggle between the two main parties after 1966.
Although the Falkland Islands are now most famous for the 1982 war the materials held here do not deal directly with that conflict. However there are indications of early islander opposition to the prospect of Argentinian sovereignty in descriptions of the 1968 visit by Lord Chalfont which sought to faciliate the transfer of the islands, and of British efforts throughout the 1970s to tie economic investment to closer political co-operation with the Argentines. The items from the 1989 election are also interesting in this respect, showing that the war, whilst still an issue, is less significant than the need to ensure continuing economic stability. The shortage of political party materials can to an extent be ascribed to the Falklands' tradition of non-partisan candidates standing in elections.
Although trades unions had functioned in The Gambia from the 1920s, it was not until the 1950s that the first political parties emerged. Disputes between these parties, which included the Gambia Muslim Congress, the United Party and the Protectorate People's Party (later to become the Peoples' Progressive Party), delayed agreement on the transition to independence until 1965, when Dawda Kairaba Jawara of the PPP became the country's first Prime Minister. Though Gambia had a multi-party electoral system Jawara and the PPP remained in power until the 1994 coup, during which time the country became a republic (1970), experienced its first coup (1981) and formed a confederation with Senegal (Senegambia, 1982-1989). The leader of the second coup, Yahya Jammeh, has since won two presidential elections under a new constitution with his Alliance for Patriotic Re-orientation and Construction (Gambia), although several opposition parties were either banned from or boycotted the polls. The materials here cover the entire period from the end of colonial rule to the Jammeh era.
The materials held here all date from the period between the official acceptance in 1990 of the Hong Kong Basic Law as the constitution after handover and the last elections under the British in 1994. The major issue for the parties and groups represented here is the prospect of Chinese rule and its implications for democracy and human rights in the Special Administrative Region. As Hong Kong is no longer part of the Commonwealth this collection is now considered closed.
Mauritius was a British colony from its capture from the French 1810 until its independence in 1968, but it maintained both its Napoleonic institutions and its Franco-Mauritian business elite. Other ethnic groups on the island include a Creole population descended from the French plantation owners and their slaves and both Muslim and Hindu Indo-Mauritians who arrived as indentured labourers from 1835 after the abolition of slavery. Since the country's first elections in 1947 Hindu-led parties have monopolised power, with the Parti travailliste (Mauritius) ruling the country until 1982 before being supplanted by an alliance of the Mouvement militant mauricien (MMM) and the Mouvement socialiste mauricien (MSM).
A large proportion of the material held here dates from the 1950s and 1960s, encompassing the build-up to and eventual realisation of Malta's independence in 1964. Amongst the significant debates of this period were the question of the consequences for Malta's economy of any reduction in the British military presence on the island and the merits of the various options of integration, interdependence and independence. The collection also covers the post-independence electoral struggle between the two main parties, the Nationalist Party and the Malta Labour Party, led for a long time by Dom Mintoff, whose writings and speeches feature prominently here. The antipathy of the Catholic Church to Mintoff's Labour Party led to the formation of alternatives, such as the Christian Workers Party, and there are holdings for these alongside those of other minority parties, trades unions and pressure groups.
The former French colony of Martinique became an Overseas Department of the French Republic in 1946. Political parties tend to be departmental counterparts to those of metropolitan France. The only party represented here is the Parti communiste martiniquais.
Malawi, formerly Nyasaland, became independent in 1964 under the government of the Malawi Congress Party (MCP) led by Hastings Kamuzu Banda. Banda was to rule the country for the next thirty years, presiding over the transition to republic status in 1966 and appointing himself president for life in 1971. Violent protests against the governing party in 1992 following a severe drought led to a referendum the following year which paved the way for the end of one-party rule, and Banda lost the 1994 election to Bakili Muluzi.
Post-war materials predominate in this collection, with the majority of the items dating from the 1960s-1980s. Both main electoral parties (the New Zealand Labour Party and the New Zealand National Party) feature significantly, with the most notable of the issues contested being the economy, especially from the 1970s as world events began to intrude upon New Zealand's previous policy of protectionism, and foreign affairs. The latter provided the largest gap between Labour and the Nationals, the latter continuing to orient policy towards America and the West whilst the former withdrew troops from Vietnam, forced the cancellation of the 1973 Springboks tour and displayed persistent opposition to French nuclear testing in the Pacific. That nuclear technology and other environmental issues were becoming significant political factors in New Zealand in the 1970s is shown by the rise of the Values Party. Although brief this represented the first instance worldwide of a 'green party' commanding significant mass support. Also represented here is the Social Credit Party and its precursor, the Social Credit Political League, adhering to the C.H. Douglas doctrine of cheap money and constituting New Zealand's third party from the 1950s onwards. Outside the realm of electoral politics there are a variety of items produced by right-wing parties of various seriousness, including the National Front and the Imperial British Conservative Party, and a large collection of materials produced by various incarnations of the New Zealand Communist Party. The decision of the latter to take China's side in its dispute with the Soviet Union led to the formation of the Socialist Unity Party in 1966, and another splinter group, the pro-Chinese New Zealand Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist) emerged after the mother party transferred its allegiance to Hoxha's Albania after the death of Mao in 1976. All of these labyrinthine quarrels are reproduced here.
Sabah, previously British North Borneo, joined with Sarawak, Singapore and Malaya to form the Federation of Malaysia in 1963.
Having become an autonomous British dependency in 1959 Singapore joined the new independent federation of Malaysia in 1963, only to leave it two years later to declare itself the Reublic of Singapore. The country has been ruled since 1959 by the People's Action Party (PAP) whose long-standing leader Lee Kwan Yew was Prime Minister until 1990. The majority of the materials here are concerned with the two fundamental features of Singapore since independence, its strong record of economic growth and its political authoritarianism. Unsurprisingly the PAP holdings stress the former, and prior to the 1990s this was coupled with frequent references to the need for stability against the threat of communism. Opposition parties such as the Barisan Sosialis, which split from the PAP in the early 1960s and for which there are substantial holdings, have been more concerned with the perceived unfairness of the democratic system and with human rights abuses. Additionally many of the earlier materials deal with Singapore's position within the federation of Malaysia and the administration of the federation itself, seen by some left-wing parties as being a means by which British colonial interests could continue to be served behind a veneer of independence.
Sierra Leone's 1951 constitution inaugurated a process of increasing self-government culminating in independence in 1961. Its first post-independence elections were won by the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) in 1962, but after an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state the SLPP was defeated at the polls in 1967 by the All People's Congress (APC) of Siaka Stevens. This prompted a series of coups and counter-coups until eventually Stevens assumed the prime ministership of the country in 1968. Having himself successfully enacted a one-party state in 1978 he and his successor Joseph Saidu Momoh ruled Sierra Leone until 1992, when the combination of an armed rebellion from the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) and a coup overthrowing Momoh and installing a National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC) plunged the country into a civil war from which it is only now tentatively emerging. The majority of the materials held here date from the period between the granting of the first constitution and the 1992 coup, and originate from both the governing party and opposition groups objecting to failures of democracy and perceived economic mismanagement. There are also a significant quantity of items produced by the country's Electoral Commission for the instruction of voters at the crucial 1967 election.
Since the independence of the Bahamas in 1973 the Turks and Caicos Islands have been a separate colony of the United Kingdom, with a 1976 constitution providing for democratic elections. These elections have seen the islands' two main parties, the People's Democratic Movement (PDM) and the Progressive National Party (PNP) alternate in power.
Saint Helena is still a British Dependent Territory administered by a governor, with the legislative council representing the islanders having a limited voice in the actual running of their affairs.
The sole materials currently held here originate from the United Workers' Party (UWP), which was in power in Saint Lucia for most of the period between 1964 and 1997 including the transition to independence in 1979.
The union scene on the islands was dominated in the post war period by the Antigua Trades and Labour Union, formed in 1940 and led by Vere Cornwall Bird. Its political arm, the Antigua Labour Party, subsequently became the vehicle by which many erstwhile union leaders transformed themselves into politicians. The materials here mainly originate from union conferences of the 1950s and 1960s, but also include items concerning agreements struck with the oil company Esso and detailing the progress of an unfair dismissal case.
Trades unions in Barbados were closely linked to the evolution of the party system in the years before independence, with leaders of the Barbados Workers' Union (BWU) sitting in the House of Assembly and on the Executive Council as well as being members of the Barbados Labour Party. The subsequent switch of BWU support to the Democratic Labour Party was important in securing the latter's 1961 election victory. As well as alluding to domestic politics, the Caribbean Labour Congress materials here also indicate the support of the union movement for some form of federation within the West Indies.
The materials held here date from the early 1960s, before and after the demise of the short-lived West Indies Federation. The paucity of pan-Caribbean organisations may be considered a reflection of the strength of national unions in the area, which in many cases (Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Jamaica) formed the background of successful post-colonial governing parties.
Sri Lanka had been traditionally highly unionised, particularly in the state sector, and the majority of the materials held here date from the period in the 1970s when the influence of organised labour was at its highest. Most of the items originate from umbrella organisations like the Ceylon Workers' Congress (CWC), whose relative militancy prior to 1977 and subsequent support for the United National Party government that came to power that year epitomises the ebbing of union power in the 1980s. Some of the material found here relates to the struggle for worker's rights in the most turbulent sector of the island's economy, tea production.
Both the major political parties in Guyana had ties to the trades union movement, the Trades Union Congress (TUC) being affiliated to the People's National Congress (PNC) and the Guyana Agricultural and General Workers Union (GAWU) having close links to the People's Progressive Party (PPP). In addition PPP governments were twice suspended in the pre-independence period as a consequence of labour unrest, first in 1953 when the Guiana Industrial Workers' Union struck in favour of a piece of industrial legislation, and then in 1964 when the pro-opposition TUC organised a general strike which led to British intervention and the introduction of proportional representation. The 1964 General Strike is defended in the materials held here, which also include details of sugar trade labour-management agreements and congress reports from the 1970s and 1980s when the unions were involved in supoporting Forbes Burnham's programme of nationalisation.
The major political parties in Jamaica grew out of the trade union movement, so it is as a consequence unsurprising that the trade union federations remained politicised, affiliated either to the Jamaica Labour Party (the Bustamente Industrial Trade Union) or the People's National Party (the National Workers Union). The process by which union-employer negotiations were conducted is represented here, along with statements on collective bargaining agreements produced by both sides of industry.
The Industrial Conciliation Bill of 1923 which followed the 1922 miner's strike was the first step in a process that led to the trade union movement becoming split into two distinct sections. Firstly there were unions based mainly on white labour (but also including a minority of skilled 'coloured' and Indian workers) which, if at all, only permitted African membership of separate 'parallel' organisations. The second group of unions consisted of those initially based on African workers, later open to all, who were largely excluded from the industrial conciliation system. Both groups are represented in the materials here, which deal amongst other issues with the arguments concerning the degree to which unions should or could be 'non-political' under the apartheid system, and the extent to which members of the 'recognised' unions benefitted as a consequence of the limited access of the non-white worker to wage increases and better paid jobs. Concerns limited to particular trades and industries are also dealt with. of how the outlawing of various political parties left a greater space for other organisations to contest these issues.
Prior to UDI in 1965 only all-white unions and African unions formed after 1959 were legally recognised in what was then Southern Rhodesia, and in addition these unions had to be skill-based rather than general. After 1965, repressive labour policies forced many unionists, including the leadership of the African Trades Union Congress (ATUC), into exile. Given government antipathy and splits within the labour movement, with some unionists advocating a less political stance and association with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) while others left to support the guerrilla war (1966-1980), trade unions remained weak until independence. Subsequently the ZANU-PF regime sought to control the workforce through the creation of a new confederation, the Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions (ZCTU), designed to be compliant with government labour policy. The majority of the materials held here date from before 1980, and originate from both blue and white-collar and African and European unions.
The Australian Studies Centre was established as part of the Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London, Sep 1982 and received funding from the Menzies Memorial Trust and the Australian Government. It was officially opened, 7 Jun 1983. The first Head of the Centre was Professor Geoffrey Bolton; Professor Thomas Millar became Head in 1985. The Menzies Centre's object is to promote Australian studies in British and European universities and to act as an Australian cultural base in London, providing a forum for the discussion of Australian issues. In 1988 the Australian government ceased its financial support for the Centre and the Menzies Memorial Trust took up the full financing. The Centre was subsequently renamed the Sir Robert Menzies Centre for Australian Studies. The Centre moved from the Institute of Commonwealth Studies to King's College London in 1999 and was then known as the Menzies Centre for Australian Studies. At this time the Centre was endowed permenantly by the Australisn government whilst continuing to receive funds from the Menzies Foundation and Monash University.
Livestock have historically been an important feature of Argentina's economy, and the establishment of refrigerating plants for meat stimulated the expansion of trade. Britain was among the prime consumers of Argentine products and a substantial investor in the development of infrastructure.
Details of the Anglo-Argentine Refrigerating Company Ltd are not known.
Following the Spanish-American War a treaty (1898) established Cuba as an independent republic, although US military occupation continued until 1902, and subsequently US influence remained strong. US investment in Cuban enterprises increased, and many economic concerns passed to American ownership.
Details of the American Cuban Estates Corporation are not known.
The first surveys of the Bahia and San Francisco railway in Brazil were made by Charles Vignoles in 1854. Works were not commenced until the year 1857, and were completed in 1861. Vignoles was the Engineer-in-Chief.
Henry Clark Barlow was born on 12 May 1806 in Surrey, the only child of Henry and Sophia Barlow. He was educated at schools in Gravesend and Bexley. In 1822 he was articled to the architect and surveyor George Smith of Mercer's Hall and soon afterwards he also began to study at the Royal Academy. Following an accidental wound to his right thumb which affected a nerve, he gave up his architectural work in 1827 and spent the next few years in private study and attending lectures. In 1831 he began a course in 'classical reading' at the University of Edinburgh. He stayed at Edinburgh for six years during which his interests covered a wide field: mathematics, metaphysics, philosophy of the mind, theology and natural sciences, with special emphasis on geology. In November 1831 he matriculated as a medical student without any intention of graduating in the subject, but on the persuasion of a friend he stayed on to become a doctor. After graduating, he spent a further winter in Edinburgh and then went to Paris where he attended hospitals and lectures on medicine and joined the Parisian Medical Society. During his time in Paris, Barlow also found time to pursue his two greatest interests: geology and the fine arts. He made a collection of the rocks and fossils of the Paris Basin and he frequently visited the Louvre. He had become a member of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1833: he was to become a fellow of the Geological Society in 1865. His love of geology and the arts, combined with that of travel, kept him fully occupied until the autumn of 1840. During that time he toured the British Isles and northern Europe. The winter of 1840-1841 was spent in making a detailed study of Italy and the Italian language in preparation for an extended stay in that country. He left England in May 1841 and travelled through Belgium, France and Switzerland, arriving in Milan in the autumn. He stayed in Italy until Christmas 1845 and made innumerable sketches and drawings of architecture, sculpture and painting which culminated in the writing of his histories of Italian sculpture and painting. Although he intended their publication he was never quite satisfied with them and they remained unpublished. Barlow spent the winter of 1844-1845 in Pisa where he 'discovered Dante' and 'led the life of a literary student ... The study and illustration of the Poet's work now took precedence of everything else'. He painstakingly examined Dante texts and also searched for the localities mentioned in the Divina Commedia in order to compile an album of original drawings illustrating Dante's great work. In 1846 he went to Florence where he became involved in the political movement for the unification of Italy. After further travel through Greece, Turkey, the Austrian Empire and Germany, Barlow returned to England. He began writing to the Morning Post a series of letters concerning diverse subjects, which continued until 1868, usually under the signature XYZ. In 1850 Barlow published his first paper relating to Dante, 'Remarks on the reading of the 59th verse of the 5th canto of the Inferno'. Other articles followed, many of which were printed in the Athenaeum between 1857 and 1874. During the 1850s he published some occasional verse, but his main work was the preparation of at least eight books or major essays on Dante, while at the same time planning a text of the Divina Commedia according to his interpretation of the codices studied, and a new translation in prose with a life of Dante. In 1858 he listed this material in 'Works on the Divina Commedia Preparing for Publication', which included a sample page from his 'Word Book of the Divina Commedia' and from his 'Critical, Historical and Philosophical Contributions to the Study of the Divina Commedia'. This last remains his most important work, and its publication in October 1864 was the result of years of study in European libraries. He dedicated the book to the approaching Festival of Dante at Florence, and was awarded a silver medal for it by the municipality of the city. Barlow attended the Festival of Dante held in 1865: he was the British representative appointed by the organizing committee. Ten days after the Festival in Florence, Dante's bones were discovered at Ravenna, so another Festival was hastily arranged. Barlow attended this too and sent an article to the Athenaeum describing both events: it was published on 9 September 1865. In recognition of his part in the organization of the Florence festival, Barlow was knighted by Victor Emmanuel II, who bestowed on him the title of Cavaliere dell'Ordine dei SS Maurizio e Lazzaro. Barlow continued to travel and study abroad. He was a corresponding member of the Accademia dei Quiriti of Rome from 1854 and an honorary fellow of the German Dante Society. He corresponded with many other Dante scholars, including Carl Witte and Lord Vernon. Although Barlow did not publish many of his projected works, he did much in preparation. Many of his original drawings to illustrate the Divina Commedia were finished and mounted, but the series is incomplete. No commentary on the Divina Commedia was ever published by him although he wrote three over the years. Among his published and unpublished works were several essays on medicine, symbolism and theology. His quest for knowledge and his love of travel never left him. He died aged 70 on 8 November 1876, while on a visit to Salzburg.
Carswell was born in Paisley, Scotland, on 3 February 1793. He studied medicine at the University of Glasgow where he was noted for his skill in drawing. He spent 2 years working at hospitals in Paris and Lyons, 1822-1823. He then returned to Scotland and took his MD at Marischal College, Aberdeen, in 1826, before returning to Paris. In about 1828 he was nominated by the Council of University College London to be Professor of Pathological Anatomy there, but before starting teaching duties he was commissioned to prepare a collection of pathological drawings. He remained in Paris till 1831 when he had completed a series of two thousand water-colour drawings of diseased structures. He then came to London and undertook the duties of his Professorship. Soon afterwards, he was also appointed physician to University College Hospital; however he never practised and embarked on preparing a great book on pathological anatomy. This book was published in 1837 as 'Illustrations of the elementary forms of disease'. Later in life he became unwell and in 1840 he resigned his Professorship and accepted the appointment of physician to the King of the Belgians. Carswell spent the remainder of his life in Belgium, being occupied in official duties and charitable medical attendance on the poor. He was knighted in 1850 by Queen Victoria. He died on 15 June 1857.
Raymond Wilson Chambers studied at University College London (UCL), 1891-1899, and was appointed Quain Student in English there in 1899. He stayed at UCL and was Librarian from 1901 to 1922. He was also Assistant Professor in the English Department, 1904-1914. In 1915 he became Reader in English. From 1915 to 1917 he served for a time with the Red Cross in France, and with the YMCA with the British Expeditionary Force in Belgium. In 1922 he became Quain Professor of English at UCL in succession to W P Ker. In 1933 he visited the USA to deliver the Turnbull lectures in Baltimore. He published Widsith: a study in Old English herioc legend in 1912, Beowulf: an introduction to the study of the poem, with a discussion of the stories of Offa and Finn in 1921, Life of More in 1932, Thomas More in 1935, and Man's unconquerable mind in 1939. Chambers retired in 1941 and died in 1942. The fullest account of Chambers' life is given by C J Sisson in the Proceedings of the British Academy, vol xxx (1944), pp 427-39, with a bibliography by H Winifred Husbands.
Born in London, 1920; educated at Highgate School, Trinity College Cambridge (Robert Styring Scholar, Classics, and Senior Scholar, Natural Sciences), and the London Hospital (Scholar); visited Buenos Aires and West Africa, 1936; refused military service in World War Two, 1939-1945; 1st Class Natural Science Tripos, Part I, 1940; 2nd Class Natural Science Tripos, 1st Division (Pathology), 1941; BA, 1943; married Ruth Muriel Harris, 1943; Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery, Cambridge, 1944; Member of the Royal College of Surgeons and Licentiate, Royal College of Physicians, London, 1944; MA, Cambridge, 1945; Diploma in Child Health, London, 1945; one son, Nicholas, born, 1946; Lecturer in Physiology, London Hospital Medical College, 1948-1951; PhD in Biochemistry, London, 1949; Honorary Research Associate, Department of Zoology, University College London, 1951-1973; DSc in Gerontology, London, 1963; Director of Research in Gerontology, Zoology Department, University College London, 1966-1973; President, British Society for Research on Ageing, 1967; first marriage dissolved and married Jane Tristram Henderson (d 1991), 1973; Clinical Lecturer, Department of Psychiatry, Stanford University, 1974-1983; Professor, Department of Pathology, University of California School of Medicine, Irvine, 1976-1978; Consultant psychiatrist, Brentwood VA Hospital, Los Angeles, 1978-1981; Adjunct Professor, Neuropsychiatric Institute, University of California at Los Angeles, from 1980; Consultant, Ventura County Hospital (Medical Education), from 1981; member of the Royal Society of Medicine; member of the American Psychiatric Association; a prolific author, best known for books on sexual behaviour - in which he advocated greater sexual freedom, including the bestselling and widely translated The Joy of Sex and its sequels - but wrote on a diverse range of subjects; an anarchist, and published works on anarchy; a pacifist, and active in the movement for nuclear disarmament; died in Banbury, Oxfordshire, 2000. Publications include: Fiction: No Such Liberty (1941); The Almond Tree (1943); The Powerhouse (1944); Letters from an Outpost (1947); On This Side Nothing (1949); A Giant's Strength (1952); Come Out to Play (1961); Tetrarch (1980); Imperial Patient (1987); The Philosophers (1989). Poetry: France and Other Poems (1942); A Wreath for the Living (1943); Elegies (1944); The Song of Lazarus (USA, 1945); The Signal to Engage (1947); And All But He Departed (1951); Haste to the Wedding (1961); Poems (1979); Mikrokosmos (1994). Plays: Into Egypt (1942); Cities of the Plain (1943); Gengulphus (1948). Songs: Are You Sitting Comfortably? (1962). Non-fiction: The Silver River (1938); Art and Social Responsibility (1946); First Year Physiological Technique (1948); The Novel and Our Time (1948); Barbarism and Sexual Freedom (1948); Sexual Behaviour in Society (1950); The Pattern of the Future (1950); Authority and Delinquency in the Modern State (1950); The Biology of Senescence (1956); Darwin and the Naked Lady (1961); Sex in Society (1963); Ageing, the Biology of Senescence (1964); The Process of Ageing (1964); Nature and Human Nature (1966); The Anxiety Makers (1967); The Joy of Sex (1972); More Joy (1974); A Good Age (1977); as editor, Sexual Consequences of Disability (1978); I and That: Notes on the Biology of Religion (1979); A practice of Geriatric Psychiatry (1979); The Facts of Love (1980); What is a Doctor? (1980); Reality and Empathy (1984); with Jane T Comfort, What about Alcohol? (1983); The New Joy of Sex (1991); Against Power and Death (1994). Translation: The Koka Shastra (1964).
Born at Shrewsbury, 1862; moved with his family to Guildford, 1866; educated at the Royal Grammar School, Guildford; interested in natural science, but formed a desire to enter the Unitarian ministry and went to Owens College, Manchester, 1883; graduated in philosophy with first class honours, 1888; continued to study philosophy, at Manchester College Oxford and then at Leipzig; Hibbert Scholar, 1891-1896; graduated from Leipzig with a PhD, 1896; minister at Unity Church, Islington, 1897-1903; Lecturer for the London School of Ethics and Sociology, 1897-1898; Vice-President of the Aristotelian Society, 1901; Assistant Editor of the Hibbert Journal, 1902; LittD, Manchester, 1904; appointed to the Chair of Moral Philosophy at University College London, 1904; lived in Cambridge, travelling to London several times weekly, and also delivered some lectures in Cambridge; BA by research, Cambridge, 1909; MA, 1912; President of the Aristotelian Society, 1913; elected Fellow of the British Academy, 1927; retired his Professorship, 1928; Emeritus Professor from 1928; Hibbert Lecturer, 1931; Upton Lecturer in Philosophy, 1933; Essex Hall Lecturer, 1934; Hobhouse Memorial Lecturer, 1936; examiner in philosophy at various universities; a leading authority on the philosophers Immanuel Kant and George Berkeley, and on the history of philosophy, and worked on the theory of knowledge, eventually tending towards the realistic theory; died at Cambridge, 1941. Publications: Die Begriffe Phänomenon und Noumenon in ihrem Verhältnis zu einander bei Kant (1897); 'English Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century' in Friedrich Ueberweg and Franz Friedrich Maximilian Heinze's Geschichte der Philosophie (1897); memoir of James Drummond in Drummond's Pauline Meditations (1919); Ways towards the Spiritual Life (1928); article on theory of knowledge in Encyclopaedia Britannica (14th edition, 1929); Berkeley, in Leaders of Philosophy series (1932); Human Personality and Future Life (1934); Thought and Real Existence (1936); The Philosophical Bases of Theism (1937); Critical Realism: Studies in the Philosophy of Mind and Nature (1938); various articles and reviews in Mind, the Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Hibbert Journal, Journal of Psychology, and other periodicals.
Frederick George Donnan studied at Queen's College Belfast from 1889 to 1893, and in Germany under Wislicenus, Ostwald and van't Hoff until 1897. From 1898 to 1903 he worked in Professor (later Sir William) Ramsay's laboratory in University College London. In 1903 he became a Lecturer in Organic Chemistry at the Royal College of Science in Dublin. The following year he was appointed Professor of Physical Chemistry in Liverpool. He supervised the building of the Muspratt Laboratory of physical chemistry and was its Director 1906 to 1913. In 1913 Donnan succeeded Ramsay as Professor of General Chemistry at University College London, where he remained until 1937. From 1924 to 1926 he served on the Council of the Royal Society and was President of the Faraday Society. He was also a member of the Advisory Council of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research from 1925 to 1930; and from 1925 to 1933 he was Foreign Secretary of the Chemical Society. In 1928 he received the Davy Medal of the Royal Society. In 1936 he became a Fellow of University College London. He was President of the Chemical Society from 1937 to 1939, and Chairman of the Royal Society Scientific Relief Committee from 1941 to 1946.
Egon Sharpe Pearson was the son of Karl Pearson and his first wife, Maria Sharpe Pearson. He was born in Hampstead in 1895 and had one older and one younger sister; Sigrid Loetitia Sharpe Pearson (later Bousfield) and Helga Sharpe Pearson (later Hacker). Egon was educated at the Dragon School, Oxford, and Winchester College before going up to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1914. His time at Cambridge was interrupted by a period of war service at the Admiralty and the Ministry of Shipping, and he graduated in 1920.
In 1921 E S Pearson took up a post as a lecturer at the Department of Applied Statistics, University College London, which was then headed by his father, Karl Pearson. Egon assisted his father with the editing of the journal Biometrika, eventually taking over the role of managing editor after Karl's death in 1936. On Karl's retirement in 1933 his former department was split into the Eugenics (later Human Genetics) Department, run by R A Fisher, and the Department of Statistics, of which Egon became head. He was made Professor of Statistics in 1935.
During the Second World War E S Pearson worked for the Ordnance Board as part of an operational research group for trials of explosive weapons. He returned to UCL after the war at the age of fifty.
Egon Pearson had several important working relationships over the course of his career. He is known particularly for his collaboration with Polish mathematician Jerzy Neyman who spent time in the 1920s and 30s as a research fellow and special lecturer at UCL, working with Karl Pearson, Egon Pearson, and R A Fisher. Neyman and Egon Pearson are well known for devising the Neyman-Pearson lemma of hypothesis testing. Pearson was also influenced by W S Gosset [aka "Student"] whom he regarded as "one of the greatest of what might be called real practising statisticians". He drafted a biography of Gosset titled All This and Student Too which was published posthumously as Student: A Statistical Biography of William Sealy Gosset. Pearson also worked closely with Walter Shewhart on statistical technique in standardisation and industrial production..