Identity area
Reference code
Title
Date(s)
- 1925- 2003 (Creation)
Level of description
Extent and medium
150 linear metres
Context area
Name of creator
Biographical history
The League for the Prohibition of Cruel Sports (LPCS) was founded by Henry B Amos and his friend Ernest Bell. During 1923 Henry B Amos had in successfully campaigned for the banning of Sunday rabbit-coursing in the district of Morden, by means of letters to the press, distribution of leaflets and gathering support amongst civic and religious leaders. At the same time, he was campaigning for a Protection of Animals Bill, designed to stop both rabbit-coursing and hunting of carted (transported) stag. In 1924, Amos decided to devote his whole time to this humane work thought the formation of a society, and Ernest Bell agreed to become the Honorary Treasurer. They had both been members of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) and former members of the Humanitarian League (ceased in 1919) buy felt that RSPCA was insufficiently active on the hunting issue.
The League's stated principle was That it is iniquitous to inflict suffering, either directly or indirectly, upon sentient animals for the purpose of sport.' It initially focused on the prohibition of recognised blood-sports including fox-hunting, stag-hunting, otter-hunting, hare-hunting, rabbit and hare-coursing. It also campaigned against the Rodeo, which was staged at the British Empire Exhibition, Wembley, and was attempting to establish an English headquarters at Leeds. Campaign methods ofpractical propaganda' included the printing and issuing of leaflets, monthly articles in Animals Friend, lobbying community and religious leaders, letters to the press. Membership of new society grew steadily by 1927, had 1000 members.
Internal conflict was a continual feature of the League's existence. In 1931, Bell resigned, along with the President, the Hon S Coleridge, as did his successor, Lady Cory, the same year. The disputes mainly involved policy disagreements, particularly over the hunting activities of Royalty. The League sought to achieve respectability, by acquiring as patrons or vice presidents -those with titles, churchmen, and military rank.
In 1932, the dissidents formed the National Society for the Abolition of Cruel Sports (NSACS) split from the League, however publicity generated by the spilt attracted sufficient membership for both the LACS and the NSACS to survive. The League's tactics were mainly designed to general publicity by pamphlets and leaflets especially, as well as letter writing and articles in local and national newspapers.
Local semi-autonomous branches of the League were also established in the South-West, Oxford and Bristol started in 1927-1928. By 1939, 8 active local branches. During World War 2, membership dipped and achievements were few. The Secretary, Mr J Sharp, largely managed the Leagues affairs. He attacked hunting as an unpatriotic activity, and gained supported from several newspapers. He encouraged people to write letters to the press, which was one of the few ways of beginning the debate, and in 1942, sent 556 letters to the press, of which 110 were published. After the War, promise of legislation in 1948-9, and by the Scott Henderson inquiry of 1950-1, both served to renew interesting in the League's activities.
During the 1950s, the League also attempted to raise media interest in the issue of animal cruelty, complaining about cruelty to the horses involved in the Grand National, and objecting to the BBC programme on myxomatosis. Journalist and Chairman of the League, E Hemingway, was particularly active in this area, and managed to persuade 36 newspapers to publish reports of the League's 1956 AGM. He was successful publicist, and enthusiastic for the disrupting of hunts and annoying of hunting people. However, the society was gaining a radical image and failed to gain support in the arenas where decisions about hunting were made.
Hemingway did however introduce an alternate policy, in 1957, of buying small but strategically placed pieces of land, initially on Exmoor, and denying hunting people access to it. When a hunt crossed the land in 1959, the League responded with demands for police protection, a High Court injunction against the Devon and Somerset Staghounds, and placed armed guards around the sanctuary. This policy lead to further purchases of land, and by 1976, 24 properties amounting to over 1500 acres, with another 9 properties, and 600 acres added by 1982. In some cases the League purchased sporting rights, but not the land itself, or purchased whole farms, which they then leased them to commercial non-hunting farmers. This `sanctuary policy' was successful in protecting a number of animals, providing regular and continuous publicity for League whenever there was an invasion, and gave the organisation a way of spending its increasing legacy income.
In conjunction with this, the League began to offer free legal advice to land owners who wished to sue or get injunctions against hunts that trespassed on their property, winning 6 cases in 1974. The League also developed policy of asking landlords such as the National Trust and the Crown to ban hunting on their land, as well as lobbying urban councils to do the same. In 1982, the Cooperative Wholesale Society, owner of 50000 acres of farmland was persuaded to ban hunting on all its land.
The League was initially supported by membership subscriptions, later however War legacies made up a significant proportion of the League's income and since 1960, more income has been received from legacies than subscriptions, thus giving the League financial independence from its own members. In 1970s membership reached around 13000.
However, the League had failed in successive attempts to abolish coursing failed in the late 1960s and 1970s. The Protection of Badgers Act 1973 was a positive step, but it still authorised landowners to kill badgers. Internal disputes erupted again in May 1977, as the Annual General Meeting was adjourned in chaos. At the Extraordinary General Meeting in November that year, the arguments continued and the current Chairman, R Rowley, was challenged and withdrew from the election. Eventually Lord Houghton, persuaded to stand for post of Chairman and was elected in December 1977, and the League was able to focus once more on working to change legislation in order to effectively end hunting.
In 1978, the League joined the General Election Co-ordinating Committee for Animal protection (GECCAP), which was formed as a consultative body, in order to make direct approaches to politicians and political parties, in preparation for the 1979 general election. Its main aims were to persuade political parties to develop an animal welfare policy, create a standing Royal Commission on Animal protection , and make policy commitments on areas of concern including blood sports. In Jul 1979, GECCAP was dissolved that the National Consultative Committee or Animal Protection was formed.
It was not until 1981, that the Wildlife and Countryside Act increased the protection of badgers, and was further strengthened in 1985. The passing of the Badger Sett (Protection) Act 1991 was a major success for the League. Other successes have included the Wild Mammals (Protection) Act 1996; and the Protection of Wild Mammals (Scotland) Act 2002.
Repository
Archival history
GB 2392 1925- 2003 Collection (fonds) 150 linear metres League for the Prohibition of Cruel Sports , [1923] -1938
League Against Cruel Sports , 1938-
The League for the Prohibition of Cruel Sports (LPCS) was founded by Henry B Amos and his friend Ernest Bell. During 1923 Henry B Amos had in successfully campaigned for the banning of Sunday rabbit-coursing in the district of Morden, by means of letters to the press, distribution of leaflets and gathering support amongst civic and religious leaders. At the same time, he was campaigning for a Protection of Animals Bill, designed to stop both rabbit-coursing and hunting of carted (transported) stag. In 1924, Amos decided to devote his whole time to this humane work thought the formation of a society, and Ernest Bell agreed to become the Honorary Treasurer. They had both been members of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) and former members of the Humanitarian League (ceased in 1919) buy felt that RSPCA was insufficiently active on the hunting issue.
The League's stated principle was That it is iniquitous to inflict suffering, either directly or indirectly, upon sentient animals for the purpose of sport.' It initially focused on the prohibition of recognised blood-sports including fox-hunting, stag-hunting, otter-hunting, hare-hunting, rabbit and hare-coursing. It also campaigned against the Rodeo, which was staged at the British Empire Exhibition, Wembley, and was attempting to establish an English headquarters at Leeds. Campaign methods ofpractical propaganda' included the printing and issuing of leaflets, monthly articles in Animals Friend, lobbying community and religious leaders, letters to the press. Membership of new society grew steadily by 1927, had 1000 members.
Internal conflict was a continual feature of the League's existence. In 1931, Bell resigned, along with the President, the Hon S Coleridge, as did his successor, Lady Cory, the same year. The disputes mainly involved policy disagreements, particularly over the hunting activities of Royalty. The League sought to achieve respectability, by acquiring as patrons or vice presidents -those with titles, churchmen, and military rank.
In 1932, the dissidents formed the National Society for the Abolition of Cruel Sports (NSACS) split from the League, however publicity generated by the spilt attracted sufficient membership for both the LACS and the NSACS to survive. The League's tactics were mainly designed to general publicity by pamphlets and leaflets especially, as well as letter writing and articles in local and national newspapers.
Local semi-autonomous branches of the League were also established in the South-West, Oxford and Bristol started in 1927-1928. By 1939, 8 active local branches. During World War 2, membership dipped and achievements were few. The Secretary, Mr J Sharp, largely managed the Leagues affairs. He attacked hunting as an unpatriotic activity, and gained supported from several newspapers. He encouraged people to write letters to the press, which was one of the few ways of beginning the debate, and in 1942, sent 556 letters to the press, of which 110 were published. After the War, promise of legislation in 1948-9, and by the Scott Henderson inquiry of 1950-1, both served to renew interesting in the League's activities.
During the 1950s, the League also attempted to raise media interest in the issue of animal cruelty, complaining about cruelty to the horses involved in the Grand National, and objecting to the BBC programme on myxomatosis. Journalist and Chairman of the League, E Hemingway, was particularly active in this area, and managed to persuade 36 newspapers to publish reports of the League's 1956 AGM. He was successful publicist, and enthusiastic for the disrupting of hunts and annoying of hunting people. However, the society was gaining a radical image and failed to gain support in the arenas where decisions about hunting were made.
Hemingway did however introduce an alternate policy, in 1957, of buying small but strategically placed pieces of land, initially on Exmoor, and denying hunting people access to it. When a hunt crossed the land in 1959, the League responded with demands for police protection, a High Court injunction against the Devon and Somerset Staghounds, and placed armed guards around the sanctuary. This policy lead to further purchases of land, and by 1976, 24 properties amounting to over 1500 acres, with another 9 properties, and 600 acres added by 1982. In some cases the League purchased sporting rights, but not the land itself, or purchased whole farms, which they then leased them to commercial non-hunting farmers. This `sanctuary policy' was successful in protecting a number of animals, providing regular and continuous publicity for League whenever there was an invasion, and gave the organisation a way of spending its increasing legacy income.
In conjunction with this, the League began to offer free legal advice to land owners who wished to sue or get injunctions against hunts that trespassed on their property, winning 6 cases in 1974. The League also developed policy of asking landlords such as the National Trust and the Crown to ban hunting on their land, as well as lobbying urban councils to do the same. In 1982, the Cooperative Wholesale Society, owner of 50000 acres of farmland was persuaded to ban hunting on all its land.
The League was initially supported by membership subscriptions, later however War legacies made up a significant proportion of the League's income and since 1960, more income has been received from legacies than subscriptions, thus giving the League financial independence from its own members. In 1970s membership reached around 13000.
However, the League had failed in successive attempts to abolish coursing failed in the late 1960s and 1970s. The Protection of Badgers Act 1973 was a positive step, but it still authorised landowners to kill badgers. Internal disputes erupted again in May 1977, as the Annual General Meeting was adjourned in chaos. At the Extraordinary General Meeting in November that year, the arguments continued and the current Chairman, R Rowley, was challenged and withdrew from the election. Eventually Lord Houghton, persuaded to stand for post of Chairman and was elected in December 1977, and the League was able to focus once more on working to change legislation in order to effectively end hunting.
In 1978, the League joined the General Election Co-ordinating Committee for Animal protection (GECCAP), which was formed as a consultative body, in order to make direct approaches to politicians and political parties, in preparation for the 1979 general election. Its main aims were to persuade political parties to develop an animal welfare policy, create a standing Royal Commission on Animal protection , and make policy commitments on areas of concern including blood sports. In Jul 1979, GECCAP was dissolved that the National Consultative Committee or Animal Protection was formed.
It was not until 1981, that the Wildlife and Countryside Act increased the protection of badgers, and was further strengthened in 1985. The passing of the Badger Sett (Protection) Act 1991 was a major success for the League. Other successes have included the Wild Mammals (Protection) Act 1996; and the Protection of Wild Mammals (Scotland) Act 2002.
Created and held in situ.
Minutes of the Executive Committee, 1927-2003; Annual reports 1925-1934, 1957-2003; printed Memorandum and articles of association, 1967-1989; Constitution, adopted 1995; League publications including leaflets 1920s-2003; posters [1990s-2003]; Wildlife Conservation(formerly titled Cruel Sports, changed in 1980s) journal of the Against Cruel Sports, Jan 1927-2003; League Doings, bulletin of the League Against Cruel Sports, 1940-1959 (quarterly newsletter); press releases 1978-1995; Support Group press releases 1994-1996; copies of Letters to the Editor (letters and cuttings) 1979-1995; correspondence files, 1990-1994;
Files relating to Fell and moor land working terrier clubs, including cuttings and related papers, 1985-1994; terrier work, 1992-1993; Badger cases - adjourned and dismissed [1985-1994]; Shooting News - lists of adverts, letters and articles by people with convictions (re badgers and dog fighting) 1982-1990; Undercover Britain - the killing set, Channel 4, 18 Jan 1994 including response from the Countryman's Weekly and the Broadcasting Complaints Committee [1994]; Hare coursing bill research 1975-1976; Creatures and wild plants protection Bill (Mr P Hardy) 1975 and Badger Bill (Lord Arran) 1973; Badger convictions adjourned or dismissed cases and investigations [1983-1995]; Research file - lamps, cats, baiting/diggings, terrier men photos, anti-fox campaign; Hunt monitoring files, including applications forms and handbooks and lists of hunts, 1994-1997;
News cuttings relating to cruelty to animals, arranged annually by subject including hunt havoc; fox hunting; deer hunting; hare hunting, beagles, bassets and harriers; hare coursing; mink, coypu and otter hunting; illegal blood sports; badger baiting and dog fighting; letters - pro blood sports, anti blood sports and miscellaneous; hunt bans - councils, farmers, landowners; shooting, fishing and poisoning; poaching, cross-bows and airguns; terrier work, ferrets; illegal activity; League fundraising shows, walks, trails and sanctuary publicity; drag hunting and bloodhounds; miscellaneous animal welfare; conservation general and falconry; European blood sports; personalities, other animal welfare groups; political; opinion polls; BSE / mad cow disease; hunt saboteurs; pro-blood sports - violence and damage; illegal blood sports - dog fighting; badger digging, baiting, cockfighting and bull fighting; hunt bans - councils, farms, landowners, National trust, church and MOD; conservation; Alan Meale - wild animals Bill ; Foster Bill and Committee; Bateson Report and Ban; 1926-1967s, (7 files); 1980-2001 (420 files);
LACS support group newsletters, 1992-1994, including letters from the following groups- West Midlands, Bucks, East Dorset, Bath and Bristol, Salisbury, Leeds, Wiltshire, Aberdeen, Isle of Wight, Leicester, Stamford, North East, Banbury, Basingstoke, Gloucester, New Forest, Sussex area, North Hampshire, East Yorkshire, Caerphilly and district, Yeovil, Berkshire, Cornwall, Bedfordshire, Cheshire and Shropshire, Southampton and Waterside;
pro-hunt and non-League leaflets [1970s];
non League publications including those of bodies monitored by the League, including Countryman's Weekly, 1995-2001; BBC Wildlife 1995-1997; British Field Sports Society Country Sports, 1987-1995; British Wildlife (with indexes) 1991-1996; Earth dog - running dog, 1996; Horse and Hound, 1970s, 1986-2001; Hounds, 1997; Hunting, 1994-1996; National Geographic, 1996-1998; Shooting Gazette, 1993-1995; Shooting News, 1983-1993; Shooting Times, 1975-6, 1995-2001; Sporting Dog, 1992, 1994; The Field 1977-78, 1983-2001; The Veterinary Record, 1994-1996; Wildlife Conservation, 2001; RSPCA Annual Reports, 1959-1983 (incomplete);
photographs including black and white, and colour images relating to League activities, arranged in the following categories: Beagling, basset hounds, fox hunting, stag hunting, deer, sanctuaries, dog fighting, buck hunting, hare coursing, shooting; cock fighting, hares and rabbits, fell hunting, wild birds, mammals, fur trade, fluffy foxes (domesticated), drag hunting, foxes general, Euro, kennels, hunting scenes, digging out - terrier work, mink hunting, number plates and tax discs, hunt havoc and violence, meetings, fundraising, personalities - pro and anti, people, exhibitions, annual and extraordinary general meetings, general, Council hunt bans, demonstrations, marches and rallies, [1959-2003];
slide collection of images relating to the League's activities, arranged in the following categories, fox, hare, pro-hunt supporter, LACS AGMS; legal; mink and otter; badger / dog / cock sports; deer; sanctuaries and wildlife; snares and traps; European blood sports; drag and blood hound hunting; other organisations; anti-hunt supporters; politicians; shooting and falconry; hunt monitoring; hunt bans; hunt havoc; artificial earths; farm animals; miscellaneous, 1974, 1981-2003;
film and videos collection including footage of hunt monitoring, and television programmes concerning League activities, 1960s-2003;
audio cassettes recordings of radio broadcasts, reports, interviews and meetings relating to League activities, 1983-1996.
Regular accruals of photographs, slides, videos, news cuttings and publications.
The collection is uncatalogued, but series are arranged in subject order as outlined above.
By appointment only. Proof of identity required. Some material is held off site. Contact the Research and Information Officer, League Against Cruel Sports, Sparling House, Union St, London SE1 1SG.
Material of a sensitive nature is not available to researchers, nor is material that is subject to the regulations of the Data Protection Act 1998.
Copies available subject to the usual copyright restrictions.
English
Photographs database indexes (incomplete); Slides database index; Film and video material database catalogue (incomplete);
Sources: Historical Manuscripts Commission's On-Line National Register of Archives; League for the Prohibition of Cruel Sport Report to Dec 31, 1925; The politics of Hunting, Richard H Thomas, Gower Publishing Company Ltd, 1983.
Compiled by Alison Field as part of the London Signpost Survey Project
Compiled in compliance with General International Standard Archival Description, ISAD(G), second edition, 2000; National Council on Archives Rules for the Construction of Personal Place and Corporate Names 1997.
September 2003 Cultural heritage Customs and traditions England Europe Hunting Law Law reform League Against Cruel Sports , 1938- League for the Prohibition of Cruel Sports , [1923] -1938 Leisure Leisure time activities Newspaper press Press Press cuttings Social change Social policy Social reform Sport UK Western Europe London
Immediate source of acquisition or transfer
Created and held in situ.
Content and structure area
Scope and content
Minutes of the Executive Committee, 1927-2003; Annual reports 1925-1934, 1957-2003; printed Memorandum and articles of association, 1967-1989; Constitution, adopted 1995; League publications including leaflets 1920s-2003; posters [1990s-2003]; Wildlife Conservation(formerly titled Cruel Sports, changed in 1980s) journal of the Against Cruel Sports, Jan 1927-2003; League Doings, bulletin of the League Against Cruel Sports, 1940-1959 (quarterly newsletter); press releases 1978-1995; Support Group press releases 1994-1996; copies of Letters to the Editor (letters and cuttings) 1979-1995; correspondence files, 1990-1994;
Files relating to Fell and moor land working terrier clubs, including cuttings and related papers, 1985-1994; terrier work, 1992-1993; Badger cases - adjourned and dismissed [1985-1994]; Shooting News - lists of adverts, letters and articles by people with convictions (re badgers and dog fighting) 1982-1990; Undercover Britain - the killing set, Channel 4, 18 Jan 1994 including response from the Countryman's Weekly and the Broadcasting Complaints Committee [1994]; Hare coursing bill research 1975-1976; Creatures and wild plants protection Bill (Mr P Hardy) 1975 and Badger Bill (Lord Arran) 1973; Badger convictions adjourned or dismissed cases and investigations [1983-1995]; Research file - lamps, cats, baiting/diggings, terrier men photos, anti-fox campaign; Hunt monitoring files, including applications forms and handbooks and lists of hunts, 1994-1997;
News cuttings relating to cruelty to animals, arranged annually by subject including hunt havoc; fox hunting; deer hunting; hare hunting, beagles, bassets and harriers; hare coursing; mink, coypu and otter hunting; illegal blood sports; badger baiting and dog fighting; letters - pro blood sports, anti blood sports and miscellaneous; hunt bans - councils, farmers, landowners; shooting, fishing and poisoning; poaching, cross-bows and airguns; terrier work, ferrets; illegal activity; League fundraising shows, walks, trails and sanctuary publicity; drag hunting and bloodhounds; miscellaneous animal welfare; conservation general and falconry; European blood sports; personalities, other animal welfare groups; political; opinion polls; BSE / mad cow disease; hunt saboteurs; pro-blood sports - violence and damage; illegal blood sports - dog fighting; badger digging, baiting, cockfighting and bull fighting; hunt bans - councils, farms, landowners, National trust, church and MOD; conservation; Alan Meale - wild animals Bill ; Foster Bill and Committee; Bateson Report and Ban; 1926-1967s, (7 files); 1980-2001 (420 files);
LACS support group newsletters, 1992-1994, including letters from the following groups- West Midlands, Bucks, East Dorset, Bath and Bristol, Salisbury, Leeds, Wiltshire, Aberdeen, Isle of Wight, Leicester, Stamford, North East, Banbury, Basingstoke, Gloucester, New Forest, Sussex area, North Hampshire, East Yorkshire, Caerphilly and district, Yeovil, Berkshire, Cornwall, Bedfordshire, Cheshire and Shropshire, Southampton and Waterside;
pro-hunt and non-League leaflets [1970s];
non League publications including those of bodies monitored by the League, including Countryman's Weekly, 1995-2001; BBC Wildlife 1995-1997; British Field Sports Society Country Sports, 1987-1995; British Wildlife (with indexes) 1991-1996; Earth dog - running dog, 1996; Horse and Hound, 1970s, 1986-2001; Hounds, 1997; Hunting, 1994-1996; National Geographic, 1996-1998; Shooting Gazette, 1993-1995; Shooting News, 1983-1993; Shooting Times, 1975-6, 1995-2001; Sporting Dog, 1992, 1994; The Field 1977-78, 1983-2001; The Veterinary Record, 1994-1996; Wildlife Conservation, 2001; RSPCA Annual Reports, 1959-1983 (incomplete);
photographs including black and white, and colour images relating to League activities, arranged in the following categories: Beagling, basset hounds, fox hunting, stag hunting, deer, sanctuaries, dog fighting, buck hunting, hare coursing, shooting; cock fighting, hares and rabbits, fell hunting, wild birds, mammals, fur trade, fluffy foxes (domesticated), drag hunting, foxes general, Euro, kennels, hunting scenes, digging out - terrier work, mink hunting, number plates and tax discs, hunt havoc and violence, meetings, fundraising, personalities - pro and anti, people, exhibitions, annual and extraordinary general meetings, general, Council hunt bans, demonstrations, marches and rallies, [1959-2003];
slide collection of images relating to the League's activities, arranged in the following categories, fox, hare, pro-hunt supporter, LACS AGMS; legal; mink and otter; badger / dog / cock sports; deer; sanctuaries and wildlife; snares and traps; European blood sports; drag and blood hound hunting; other organisations; anti-hunt supporters; politicians; shooting and falconry; hunt monitoring; hunt bans; hunt havoc; artificial earths; farm animals; miscellaneous, 1974, 1981-2003;
film and videos collection including footage of hunt monitoring, and television programmes concerning League activities, 1960s-2003;
audio cassettes recordings of radio broadcasts, reports, interviews and meetings relating to League activities, 1983-1996.
Appraisal, destruction and scheduling
Accruals
Regular accruals of photographs, slides, videos, news cuttings and publications.
System of arrangement
The collection is uncatalogued, but series are arranged in subject order as outlined above.
Conditions of access and use area
Conditions governing access
By appointment only. Proof of identity required. Some material is held off site. Contact the Research and Information Officer, League Against Cruel Sports, Sparling House, Union St, London SE1 1SG.
Material of a sensitive nature is not available to researchers, nor is material that is subject to the regulations of the Data Protection Act 1998.
Conditions governing reproduction
Copies available subject to the usual copyright restrictions.
Language of material
- English
Script of material
- Latin
Language and script notes
English
Physical characteristics and technical requirements
Finding aids
Photographs database indexes (incomplete); Slides database index; Film and video material database catalogue (incomplete);
Allied materials area
Existence and location of originals
Existence and location of copies
Related units of description
Notes area
Alternative identifier(s)
Access points
Subject access points
- Cultural heritage
- Intangible cultural heritage » Customs and traditions
- Intangible cultural heritage » Customs and traditions » Hunting
- Law
- Law » Law reform
- Leisure
- Leisure time activities
- Press » Newspaper press
- Press
- Press » Newspaper press » Press cuttings
- Social environment » Social change
- Social policy
- Social policy » Social reform
- Leisure time activities » Sport
Place access points
Name access points
Genre access points
Description control area
Description identifier
Institution identifier
Rules and/or conventions used
Compiled in compliance with General International Standard Archival Description, ISAD(G), second edition, 2000; National Council on Archives Rules for the Construction of Personal Place and Corporate Names 1997.
Status
Level of detail
Dates of creation revision deletion
Language(s)
- English